1 Man Alone with Himself

1

Enemies of truth. Convictions are more dangerous enemies of truth than lies.

2

Topsy-turvy world. We criticize a thinker more sharply when he proposes a tenet that is disagreeable to us; and yet it would be more reasonable to do this when we find his tenet agreeable.

3

A person of character. It is much more common for a person to appear to have character because he always acts in accord with his temperament, rather than because he always acts in accord with his principles.

4

The one necessary thing. A person must have one or the other: either a disposition which is easygoing by nature, or else a disposition eased by art and knowledge.

5

Passion for things. He who directs his passion to things (the sciences, the national good, cultural interests, the arts) takes much of the fire out of his passion for people (even when they represent those things, as statesmen, philosophers, and artists represent their creations).

6

Calm in action. As a waterfall becomes slower and more floating as it plunges, so the great man of action will act with greater calm than could be expected from his violent desire before the deed.

7

Not too deep. People who comprehend a matter in all its depth seldom remain true to it forever. For they have brought its depths to the light; and then there is always much to see about it that is bad.

8

Idealists' delusion. All idealists imagine that the causes they serve are significantly better than the other causes in the world; they do not want to believe that if their cause is to flourish at all, it needs exactly the same foul-smelling manure that all other human undertakings require.

9

Self-observation. Man is very well defended against himself, against his own spying and sieges; usually he is able to make out no more of himself than his outer fortifications. The actual stronghold is inaccessible to him, even invisible, unless friends and enemies turn traitor and lead him there by a secret path.

10

The right profession. Men seldom endure a profession if they do not believe or persuade themselves that it is basically more important than all others. Women do the same with their lovers.

11

Nobility of mind. To a great degree, nobility of mind consists of good nature and lack of distrust, and thus contains precisely that which acquisitive and successful people so like to treat with superiority and scorn.

12

Destination and paths. Many people are obstinate about the path once it is taken, few people about the destination.

13

The infuriating thing about an individual way of living. People are always angry at anyone who chooses very individual standards for his life; because of the extraordinary treatment which that man grants to himself, they feel degraded, like ordinary beings.

14

Privilege of greatness. It is the privilege of greatness to grant supreme pleasure through trifling gifts.

15

Unwittingly noble. A man's behavior is unwittingly noble if he has grown accustomed never to want anything from men, and always to give to them.

16

Condition for being a hero. If a man wants to become a hero, the snake must first become a dragon: otherwise he is lacking his proper enemy.

17

Friend. Shared joy, not compassion, makes a friend.

18

Using high and low tides. For the purpose of knowledge, one must know how to use that inner current that draws us to a thing, and then the one that, after a time, draws us away from it.

19

Delight in oneself. 'Delight in an enterprise,' they say; but in truth it is delight in oneself, by means of an enterprise.

20

The modest one. He who is modest with people shows his arrogance all the more with things (the city, state, society, epoch, or mankind). That is his revenge.

21

Envy and jealousy. Envy and jealousy are the pudenda of the human soul. The comparison can perhaps be pursued further.

22

The most refined hypocrite. To speak about oneself not at all is a very refined form of hypocrisy.

23

Annoyance. Annoyance is a physical illness that is by no means ended simply by eliminating the cause of the annoyance.

24

Representatives of truth. The champions of truth are hardest to find, not when it is dangerous to tell it, but rather when it is boring.

25

More troublesome than enemies. When some reason (e.g., gratitude) obliges us to maintain the appearance of unqualified congeniality with people about whose own congenial behavior we are not entirely convinced, these people torment our imagination much more than do our enemies.

26

Out in nature. We like to be out in nature so much because it has no opinion about us.

27

Everyone superior in one thing. In civilized circumstances, everyone feels superior to everyone else in at least one way; this is the basis of the general goodwill, inasmuch as everyone is someone who, under certain conditions, can be of help, and need therefore feel no shame in allowing himself to be helped.

28

Reasons for consolation. When someone dies, we usually need reasons to be consoled, not so much to soften the force of our pain, as to excuse the fact that we feel consoled so easily.

29

Loyal to their convictions. The man who has a lot to do usually keeps his general views and opinions almost unchanged; as does each person who works in the service of an idea. He will never test the idea itself any more; he no longer has time for that. Indeed, it is contrary to his interest even to think it possible to discuss it.

30

Morality and quantity. One man's greater morality, in contrast to another's, often lies only in the fact that his goals are quantitatively larger. The other man is pulled down by occupying himself with small things, in a narrow sphere.

31

Life as the product of life. However far man may extend himself with his knowledge, however objective he may appear to himself - ultimately he reaps nothing but his own biography.

32

Iron necessity. Over the course of history, men learn that iron necessity is neither iron nor necessary.

33

From experience. That something is irrational is no argument against its existence, but rather a condition for it.

34

Truth. No one dies of fatal truths nowadays: there are too many antidotes.

35

Basic insight. There is no pre-established harmony between the furthering of truth and the good of mankind.

36

Human lot. Whoever thinks more deeply knows that he is always wrong, whatever his acts and judgments.

37

Truth as Circe. Error has turned animals into men; might truth be capable of turning man into an animal again?

38

Danger of our culture. We belong to a time in which culture is in danger of being destroyed by the means of culture.

39

Greatness means: to give a direction. No river is great and bounteous through itself alone, but rather because it takes up so many tributaries and carries them onwards: that makes it great. It is the same with all great minds. All that matters is that one man give the direction, which the many tributaries must then follow; it does not matter whether he is poorly or richly endowed in the beginning.

40

Weak conscience. Men who talk about their importance for mankind have a weak conscience about their common bourgeois honesty in keeping contracts or promises.

41

Wanting to be loved. The demand to be loved is the greatest kind of arrogance.

42

Contempt for people. The least ambiguous sign of a disdain for people is this: that one tolerates everyone else only as a means to his end, or not at all.

43

Disciples out of disagreement. Whoever has brought men to a state of rage against himself has always acquired a party in his favor, too.

44

Forgetting one's experiences. It is easy for a man who thinks a lot - and objectively - to forget his own experiences, but not the thoughts that were evoked by them.

45

Adhering to an opinion. One man adheres to an opinion because he prides himself on having come upon it by himself; another because he has learned it with effort, and is proud of having grasped it: thus both out of vanity.

46

Shunning the light. The good deed shuns the light as anxiously as the evil deed: the latter fears that, if it is known, pain (as punishment) will follow; the former fears that, if it is known, joy (that pure joy in oneself, which ceases as soon as it includes the satisfaction of one's vanity) will disappear.

47

The day's length. If a man has a great deal to put in them, a day will have a hundred pockets.

48

Tyrant-genius. If the soul stirs with an ungovernable desire to assert itself tyranically, and the fire is continually maintained, then even a slight talent (in politicians or artists) gradually becomes an almost irresistible force of nature.

49

The life of the enemy. Whoever lives for the sake of combating an enemy has an interest in the enemy's staying alive.

50

More important. The unexplained, obscure matter is taken as more important than the explained, clear one.

51

Evaluating services rendered. We evaluate services someone renders us according to the value that person places on them, not according to the value they have for us.

52

Unhappiness. The distinction that lies in being unhappy (as if to feel happy were a sign of shallowness, lack of ambition, ordinariness) is so great that when someone says, 'But how happy you must be!' we usually protest.

53

Fantasy of fear. The fantasy of fear is that malevolent, apelike goblin which jumps onto man's back just when he already has the most to bear.

54

Value of insipid opponents. Sometimes we remain true to a cause only because its opponents will not stop being insipid.

55

Value of a profession. A profession makes us thoughtless: therein lies its greatest blessing. For it is a bulwark, behind which we are allowed to withdraw when qualms and worries of a general kind attack us.

56

Talent. The talent of some men appears slighter than it is because they have always set themselves tasks that are too great.

57

Youth. The time of youth is disagreeable, for then it is not possible, or not reasonable, to be productive in any sense.

58

Goals too great. Who publicly sets himself great goals, and later realizes privately that he is too weak to accomplish them, does not usually have enough strength to revoke those goals publicly, either, and then inevitably becomes a hypocrite.

59

In the stream. Strong currents draw many stones and bushes along with them; strong minds many stupid and muddled heads.

60

Danger of intellectual liberation. When a man tries earnestly to liberate his intellect, his passions and desires secretly hope to benefit from it also.

61

Embodiment of the spirit. When a man thinks much and cleverly, not only his face, but also his body takes on a clever look.

62

Seeing poorly and hearing poorly. He who sees little, always sees less; he who hears poorly, always hears something more.

63

Self-enjoyment in vanity. The vain man wants not only to stand out, but also to feel outstanding, and therefore rejects no means to deceive and outwit himself. Not the opinion of others, but his opinion of their opinion is what he cares about.

64

Vain by way of an exception. When he is physically ill, the man who is usually self-sufficient is vain by way of an exception and responsive to fame and praise. In the proportion that he is losing himself, he must try to regain himself from the outside, using strangers' opinions.

65

The 'witty' ones. The man who seeks wit has no wit.

66

Hint for party chiefs. If we can force people to declare themselves publicly for something, we have usually also brought them to the point of declaring themselves for it privately; they want to continue to be perceived as consistent.

67

Contempt. Man is more sensitive to contempt from others than to contempt from himself.

68

Rope of gratitude. There are slavish souls who carry their thanks for favors so far that they actually strangle themselves with the rope of gratitude.

69

Trick of the prophet. In order to predict the behavior of ordinary men, we must assume that they always expend the least possible amount of intellect to free themselves from a disagreeable situation.

70

The only human right. He who strays from tradition becomes a sacrifice to the extraordinary; he who remains in tradition is its slave. Destruction follows in any case.

71

Lower than the animal. When man howls with laughter, he surpasses all animals by his coarseness.

72

Superficial knowledge. He who speaks a bit of a foreign language has more delight in it than he who speaks it well; pleasure goes along with superficial knowledge.

73

Dangerous helpfulness. There are people who want to make men's lives more difficult for no other reason than afterwards to offer them their prescriptions for making life easier - their Christianity, for example.

74

Industriousness and conscientiousness. Industriousness and conscientiousness are often antagonists, in that industriousness wants to take the fruits off the tree while still sour, but conscientiousness lets them hang too long, until they drop off the tree and come to nothing.

75

Suspicion. People whom we cannot tolerate, we try to make suspect.

76

Lacking the circumstances. Many men wait all their lives for the opportunity to be good in their way.

77

Want of friends. A want of friends points to envy or arrogance. Many a man owes his friends simply to the fortunate circumstance that he has no cause for envy.

78

Danger in multiplicity. With one talent the more, one often stands less secure than with one talent the less: as the table stands better on three legs than on four.

79

Model for others. He who wants to set a good example must add a grain of foolishness to his virtue; then others can imitate and, at the same time, rise above the one being imitated - something which people love.

80

Being a target. Often, other people's vicious talk about us is not actually aimed at us, but expresses their annoyance or ill humor arising from quite different reasons.

81

Easily resigned. A man suffers little from unfulfilled wishes if he has trained his imagination to think of the past as hateful.

82

In danger. When we have just gotten out of the way of a vehicle, we are most in danger of being run over.

83

The role according to the voice. He who is forced to speak more loudly than is his habit (as in front of someone hard of hearing, or before a large audience) generally exaggerates what he has to communicate.

Some people become conspirators, malicious slanderers, or schemers, merely because their voice is best suited to a whisper.

84

Love and hatred. Love and hatred are not blind, but are blinded by the fire they themselves carry with them.

85

Made an enemy to one's advantage. Men who are unable to make their merit completely clear to the world seek to awaken an intense enmity towards themselves. Then they have the comfort of thinking that this stands between their merit and its recognition - and that other people assume the same thing, which is of great advantage to their own importance.

86

Confession. We forget our guilt when we have confessed it to another, but usually the other person does not forget it.

87

Self-sufficiency. The golden fleece of self-sufficiency protects against thrashings, but not against pin-pricks.

88

Shadow in the flame. The flame is not so bright to itself as to those on whom it shines: so too the wise man.

89

Our own opinions. The first opinion that occurs to us when we are suddenly asked about a matter is usually not our own, but only the customary one, appropriate to our caste, position, or parentage; our own opinions seldom swim near the surface.

90

Origin of courage. The ordinary man is courageous and invulnerable like a hero when he does not see the danger, when he has no eyes for it. Conversely, the hero's one vulnerable spot is on his back; that is, where he has no eyes.

91

Danger in the doctor. A man is either born for his doctor, or else he perishes by his doctor.

92

Magical vanity. He who has boldly prophesied the weather three times and has been successful, believes a bit, at the bottom of his heart, in his own prophetic gift. We do not dispute what is magical or irrational when it flatters our self-esteem.

93

Profession. A profession is the backbone of life.

94

Danger of personal influence. He who feels that he exercises a great inner influence on another must leave him quite free rein, indeed must look with favor on his occasional resistance and even bring it about: otherwise he will inevitably make himself an enemy.

95

Giving the heir his due. Whoever has established something great with a selfless frame of mind takes care to bring up heirs. It is the sign of a tyrannical and ignoble nature to see one's opponents in all the possible heirs of one's work and to live in a state of self-defense against them.

96

A little knowledge. A little knowledge is more successful than complete knowledge: it conceives things as simpler than they are, thus resulting in opinions that are more comprehensible and persuasive.

97

Not suited to be a party member. He who thinks much is not suited to be a party member: too soon, he thinks himself through and beyond the party.

98

Bad memory. The advantage of a bad memory is that, several times over, one enjoys the same good things for the first time.

99

Causing oneself pain. Inconsiderate thinking is often the sign of a discordant inner state which craves numbness.

100

Martyr. The disciple of a martyr suffers more than the martyr.

101

Residual vanity. The vanity of some people, who should not need to be vain, is the left-over and full-grown habit stemming from that time when they still had no right to believe in themselves, and only acquired their belief from others, by begging it in small change.

102

Punctum saliens of passion. He who is about to fall into a state of anger or violent love reaches a point where his soul is full like a vessel; but it needs one more drop of water: the good will to passion (which is generally also called the bad will). Only this little point is necessary; then the vessel runs over.

103

Bad-tempered thought. People are like piles of charcoal in the woods. Only when young people have stopped glowing, and carbonized, as charcoal does, do they become useful. As long as they smolder and smoke they are perhaps more interesting, but useless, and all too often troublesome.

Mankind unsparingly uses every individual as material to heat its great machines; but what good are the machines when all individuals (that is, mankind) serve only to keep them going? Machines that are their own end - is that the umana commedia?

104

The hour-hand of life. Life consists of rare, isolated moments of the greatest significance, and of innumerably many intervals, during which at best the silhouettes of those moments hover about us. Love, springtime, every beautiful melody, mountains, the moon, the sea - all these speak completely to the heart but once, if in fact they ever do get a chance to speak completely. For many men do not have those moments at all, and are themselves intervals and intermissions in the symphony of real life.

105

To set against or set to work. We often make the mistake of actively opposing a direction, or party, or epoch, because we coincidentally get to see only its superficial side, its stunted aspect, or the inescapable 'faults of its virtues,' - perhaps because we ourselves have participated to a large degree in them. Then we turn our back on them and seek an opposite direction; but it would be better to look for the strong, good sides, or to develop them in ourselves. To be sure, it takes a stronger gaze and a better will to further that which is evolving and imperfect, rather than to penetrate its imperfection and reject it.

106

Modesty. True modesty (that is, the knowledge that we are not our own creations) does exist, and it well suits the great mind, because he particularly can comprehend the thought of his complete lack of responsibility (even for whatever good he creates). One does not hate the great man's immodesty because he is feeling his strength, but rather because he wants to feel it primarily by wounding others, treating them imperiously and watching to see how much they can stand. Most often, this actually proves that he lacks a secure sense of his strength, and makes men doubt his greatness. To this extent, cleverness would strongly advise against immodesty.

107

The first thought of the day. The best way to begin each day well is to think upon awakening whether we could not give at least one person pleasure on this day. If this practice could be accepted as a substitute for the religious habit of prayer, our fellow men would benefit by this change.

108

Arrogance as the last means of comfort. If a man accounts for a misfortune, or his intellectual inadequacies, or his illness by seeing them as his predetermined fate, his ordeal, or mysterious punishment for something he had done earlier, he is thereby making his own nature interesting, and imagining himself superior to his fellow men. The proud sinner is a familiar figure in all religious sects.

109

Growth of happiness. Near to the sorrow of the world, and often upon its volcanic earth, man has laid out his little gardens of happiness; whether he approaches life as one who wants only knowledge from existence, or as one who yields and resigns himself, or as one who rejoices in a difficulty overcome - everywhere he will find some happiness sprouting up next to the trouble. The more volcanic the earth, the greater the happiness will be - but it would be ludicrous to say that this happiness justified suffering per se.

110

The street of one's ancestors. It is reasonable to develop further the talent that one's father or grandfather worked hard at, and not switch to something entirely new; otherwise one is depriving himself of the chance to attain perfection in some one craft. Thus the saying: 'Which street should you take? - that of your ancestors.'

111

Vanity and ambition as educators. So long as a man has not yet become the instrument of the universal human good, ambition may torment him; but if he has achieved that goal, if of necessity he is working like a machine for the good of all, then vanity may enter; it will humanize him in small matters, make him more sociable, tolerable, considerate, once ambition has completed the rough work (of making him useful).

112

Philosophical novices. If we have just partaken of a philosopher's wisdom, we go through the streets feeling as if we had been transformed and had become great men; for we encounter only people who do not know this wisdom, and thus we have to deliver a new, unheard-of judgment about everything; because we have acknowledged a book of laws, we also think we now have to act like judges.

113

Pleasing by displeasing. People who prefer to be noticed, and thereby displease, desire the same thing as those who do not want to be noticed, and want to please, only to a much greater degree and indirectly, by means of a step that seems to be distancing them from their goal. Because they want to have influence and power, they display their superiority, even if it is felt as disagreeable: for they know that the man who has finally gained power pleases in almost everything he does and says, that even when he displeases, he seems nevertheless to be pleasing.

Both the free spirit and the true believer want power, too, in order to use it to please; if they are threatened because of their doctrines with a dire fate, persecution, prison, or execution, they rejoice at the thought that this will enable their doctrines to be engraved and branded upon mankind; although it is delayed acting, they accept it as a painful but potent means to attain power after all.

114

Casus belli and the like. The prince who discovers a casus belli for an earlier decision to wage war against his neighbor is like a father who imposes a mother upon his child, to be henceforth accepted as such. And are not almost all publicly announced motives for our actions such imposed mothers?

115

Passions and rights. No one speaks more passionately about his rights than the man who, at the bottom of his heart, doubts them. In drawing passion to his side, he wants to deaden reason and its doubts: he thus gains a good conscience, and, along with it, success with his fellow men.

116

The renouncing man's trick. He who protests against marriage, in the manner of Catholic priests, will seek to understand it in its lowest, most vulgar sense. Likewise, he who refuses the respect of his contemporaries will conceive it in a base way; he thus makes his renunciation of it and the fight against it easier for himself. Incidentally, he who denies himself much in large matters will easily indulge himself in small matters. It is conceivable that the man who is above the applause of his contemporaries is nevertheless unable to refuse himself the satisfaction of little vanities.

117

The age of arrogance. The true period of arrogance for talented men comes between their twenty-sixth and thirtieth year; it is the time of first ripeness, with a good bit of sourness still remaining. On the basis of what one feels inside himself, one demands from other people, who see little or nothing of it, respect and humility; and because these are not at first forthcoming, one takes vengeance with a glance, an arrogant gesture, or a tone of voice. This a fine ear and eye will recognize in all the products of those years, be they poems, philosophies, or paintings and music. Older, experienced men smile about it, and remember with emotion this beautiful time of life, in which one is angry at his lot of having to be so much and seem so little. Later, one really seems to be more - but the faith in being much has been lost, unless one remain throughout his life vanity's hopeless fool.

118

Deceptive and yet firm. When walking around the top of an abyss, or crossing a deep stream on a plank, we need a railing, not to hold on to (for it would collapse with us at once), but rather to achieve the visual image of security. Likewise, when we are young, we need people who unconsciously offer us the service of that railing; it is true that they would not help us if we really were in great danger and wanted to lean on them; but they give us the comforting sensation of protection nearby (for example, fathers, teachers, friends, as we generally know all three).

119

Learning to love. We must learn to love, learn to be kind, and this from earliest youth; if education or chance give us no opportunity to practice these feelings, our soul becomes dry and unsuited even to understanding the tender inventions of loving people. Likewise, hatred must be learned and nurtured, if one wishes to become a proficient hater: otherwise the germ for that, too, will gradually wither.

120

Ruins as decoration. People who go through many spiritual changes retain some views and habits from earlier stages, which then jut out into their new thinking and acting like a bit of inexplicable antiquity and gray stonework, often ornamenting the whole region.

121

Love and respect. Love desires; fear avoids. That is why it is impossible, at least in the same time span, to be loved and respected by the same person. For the man who respects another, acknowledges his power; that is, he fears it: his condition is one of awe. But love acknowledges no power, nothing that separates, differentiates, ranks higher or subordinates. Because the state of being loved carries with it no respect, ambitious men secretly or openly balk against it.

122

Prejudice in favor of cold people. People who catch fire rapidly quickly become cold, and are therefore by and large unreliable. Therefore, all those who are always cold, or act that way, benefit from the prejudice that they are especially trustworthy, reliable people: they are being confused with those others who catch fire slowly and burn for a long time.

123

What is dangerous about free opinions. The casual entertainment of free opinions is like an itch; giving in to it, one begins to rub the area; finally there is an open, aching wound; that is, the free opinion finally begins to disturb and torment us in our attitude to life, in our human relationships.

124

Desire for deep pain. When it has gone, passion leaves behind a dark longing for itself, and in disappearing throws us one last seductive glance. There must have been a kind of pleasure in having been beaten with her whip. In contrast, the more moderate feelings appear flat; apparently we still prefer a more violent displeasure to a weak pleasure.

125

Annoyance with others and the world. When, as happens so often, we let our annoyance out on others, while we are actually feeling it about ourselves, we are basically trying to cloud and delude our judgment; we want to motivate our annoyance a posteriori by the oversights and inadequacies of others, so we can lose sight of ourselves.

Religiously strict people, who judge themselves without mercy, are also those who have most often spoken ill of mankind in general. There has never been a saint who reserves sins to himself and virtues to others: he is as rare as the man who, following Buddha's precept, hides his goodness from people and lets them see of himself only what is bad.

126

Cause and effect confused. Unconsciously we seek out the principles and dogmas that are in keeping with our temperament, so that in the end it looks as if the principles and dogmas had created our character, given it stability and certainty, while precisely the opposite has occurred. It seems that our thinking and judging are to be made the cause of our nature after the fact, but actually our nature causes us to think and judge one way or the other.

And what decides us on this almost unconscious comedy? Laziness and convenience, and not least the vain desire to be considered consistent through and through, uniform both in character and thought: for this earns us respect, brings us trust and power.

127

Age and truth. Young people love what is interesting and odd, no matter how true or false it is. More mature minds love what is interesting and odd about truth. Fully mature intellects, finally, love truth, even when it appears plain and simple, boring to the ordinary person; for they have noticed that truth tends to reveal its highest wisdom in the guise of simplicity.

128

People as bad poets. Just as bad poets, in the second half of a line, look for a thought to fit their rhyme, so people in the second half of their lives, having become more anxious, look for the actions, attitudes, relationships that suit those of their earlier life, so that everything will harmonize outwardly. But then they no longer have any powerful thought to rule their life and determine it anew; rather, in its stead, comes the intention of finding a rhyme.

129

Boredom and play. Need forces us to do the work whose product will quiet the need; we are habituated to work by the ever-new awakening of needs. But in those intervals when our needs are quieted and seem to sleep, boredom overtakes us. What is that? It is the habit of working as such, which now asserts itself as a new, additional need; the need becomes the greater, the greater our habit of working, perhaps even the greater our suffering from our needs. To escape boredom, man works either beyond what his usual needs require, or else he invents play, that is, work that is designed to quiet no need other than that for working in general. He who is tired of play, and has no reason to work because of new needs, is sometimes overcome by the longing for a third state that relates to play as floating does to dancing, as dancing does to walking, a blissful, peaceful state of motion: it is the artist's and philosopher's vision of happiness.

130

Instruction from pictures. If we consider a series of pictures of ourselves from the time of childhood to that of manhood, we are agreeably surprised to find that the man resembles the child more than the adolescent: probably corresponding to this occurrence, then, there has been a temporary alienation from our basic character, now overcome again by the man's collected, concentrated strength. This perception agrees with the one that all those strong influences of our passions, our teachers, or political events, which pull us about in our adolescence, later seem to be reduced to a fixed measure. Certainly, they continue to live and act in us, but our basic feeling and basic thinking have the upper hand; these influences are used as sources of power, but no longer as regulators, as happens in our twenties. Thus man's thinking and feeling appear again more in accord with that of his childhood years - and this inner fact is expressed in the external one mentioned above.

131

Voice of the years. The tone adolescents use to speak, praise, blame, or invent displeases older people because it is too loud and yet at the same time muffled and unclear, like a tone in a vault, which gains resonance because of the emptiness. For most of what adolescents think has not flowed out of the fullness of their own nature, but rather harmonizes and echoes what is thought, spoken, praised, or blamed around them. But because the feelings (of inclination and disinclination) reverberate in them much more strongly than the reasons for these feelings, there arises, when they give voice to their feeling again, that muffled, ringing tone that indicates the absence or paucity of reasons. The tone of the more mature years is rigorous, sharply punctuated, moderately loud, but like everything clearly articulated, it carries very far. Finally, old age often brings a certain gentleness and indulgence to the sound and seems to sugar it: of course, in some cases it makes it sour, too.

132

Backward and anticipating people. The unpleasant personality who is full of mistrust, who reacts with envy to his competitors' and neighbors' successes, who flares up violently at divergent opinions, is showing that he belongs to an earlier stage of culture, and is thus a relic. For the way in which he interacts with people was proper and appropriate for the conditions of an age when rule by force prevailed: he is a backward person. A second personality, who shares profusely in others' joy, who wins friends everywhere, who is touched by everything that grows and evolves, who enjoys other people's honors and successes, and makes no claim to the privilege of alone knowing the truth, but instead is full of modest skepticism - he is an anticipator who is reaching ahead towards a higher human culture. The unpleasant personality grows out of times when the unhewn foundation of human intercourse had still to be laid; the other lives on its highest floors, as far away as possible from the wild animal that rages and howls locked up in the cellars, beneath the foundations of culture.

133

Comfort for hypochondriacs. When a great thinker is temporarily subjected to hypochondriacal self-torments, he may say to comfort himself: 'This parasite is feeding and growing from your great strength; if that strength were less, you would have less to suffer.' The statesman may speak likewise when his jealousy and vengeful feelings, in short, the mood of a bellum omnium contra omnes, for which he as a nation's representative must necessarily have a great gift, occasionally intrude into his personal relations and make his life difficult.

134

Alienated from the present. There are great advantages in for once removing ourselves distinctly from our time and letting ourselves be driven from its shore back into the ocean of former world views. Looking at the coast from that perspective, we survey for the first time its entire shape, and when we near it again, we have the advantage of understanding it better on the whole than do those who have never left it.

135

Sowing and reaping on personal inadequacies. People like Rousseau know how to use their weaknesses, deficiencies, or vices as if they were the fertilizer of their talent. When Rousseau laments the depravity and degeneration of society as the unpleasant consequence of culture, this is based on his personal experience, whose bitterness makes his general condemnation so sharp, and poisons the arrows he shoots. He is relieving himself first as an individual, and thinks that he is seeking a cure that will directly benefit society, but that will also indirectly, and by means of society, benefit him too.

136

A philosophical frame of mind. Generally we strive to acquire one emotional stance, one viewpoint for all life situations and events: we usually call that being of a philosophical frame of mind. But rather than making oneself uniform, we may find greater value for the enrichment of knowledge by listening to the soft voice of different life situations; each brings its own views with it. Thus we acknowledge and share the life and nature of many by not treating ourselves like rigid, invariable, single individuals.

137

In the fire of contempt. It is a new step towards independence, once a man dares to express opinions that bring disgrace on him if he entertains them; then even his friends and acquaintances begin to grow anxious. The man of talent must pass through this fire, too; afterwards he is much more his own person.

138

Sacrifice. If there is a choice, a great sacrifice will be preferred to a small one, because we compensate ourselves for a great sacrifice with self-admiration, and this is not possible with a small one.

139

Love as a device. Whoever wants really to get to know something new (be it a person, an event, or a book) does well to take up this new thing with all possible love, to avert his eye quickly from, even to forget, everything about it that he finds inimical, objectionable, or false. So, for example, we give the author of a book the greatest possible head start, and, as if at a race, virtually yearn with a pounding heart for him to reach his goal. By doing this, we penetrate into the heart of the new thing, into its motive center: and this is what it means to get to know it. Once we have got that far, reason then sets its limits; that overestimation, that occasional unhinging of the critical pendulum, was just a device to entice the soul of a matter out into the open.

140

To think too well or too ill of the world. Whether we think too well or too ill of things, we will always gain the advantage of reaping a greater pleasure: if our preconceived opinion is too good we are generally investing things (experiences) with more sweetness than they actually possess. If a preconceived opinion is overly negative, it leads to a pleasant disappointment: what was pleasurable in those things in and of themselves is increased through the pleasure of our surprise.

Incidentally, a morose temperament will experience the opposite in both cases.

141

Profound people. Those people whose strength lies in the profundity of their impressions (they are generally called 'profound people') are relatively controlled and decisive when anything sudden happens: for in the first moment the impression was still shallow; only later does it become profound. But long-foreseen, anticipated things or people excite such natures most, and make them almost incapable of maintaining presence of mind when their wait is over.

142

Traffic with one's higher self. Everyone has his good day, when he finds his higher self; and true humanity demands that we judge someone only when he is in this condition, and not in his workdays of bondage and servitude. We should, for example, assess and honor a painter according to the highest vision he was able to see and portray. But people themselves deal very differently with this, their higher self, and often act out the role of their own self, to the extent that they later keep imitating what they were in those moments. Some regard their ideal with shy humility and would like to deny it: they fear their higher self because, when it speaks, it speaks demandingly. In addition, it has a ghostly freedom of coming or staying away as it wishes; for that reason it is often called a gift of the gods, while actually everything else is a gift of the gods (of chance): this, however, is the man himself.

143

Solitary people. Some people are so used to solitude with themselves that they never compare themselves to others, but spin forth their monologue of a life in a calm, joyous mood, holding good conversations with themselves, even laughing. But if they are made to compare themselves with others, they tend to a brooding underestimation of their selves: so that they have to be forced to learn again from others to have a good, fair opinion of themselves. And even from this learned opinion they will always want to detract or reduce something.

Thus one must grant certain men their solitude, and not be silly enough, as often happens, to pity them for it.

144

Without melody. There are people for whom a constant inner repose and a harmonious ordering of all their capabilities is so characteristic that any goal-directed activity goes against their grain. They are like a piece of music consisting entirely of sustained harmonious chords, with no evidence of even the beginning of a structured, moving melody. At any movement from the outside, their boat at once gains a new equilibrium on the sea of harmonic euphony. Modern people are usually extremely impatient on meeting such natures, who do not become anything - though it may not be said that they are not anything. In certain moods, however, their presence evokes that rare question: why have melody at all? Why are we not satisfied when life mirrors itself peacefully in a deep lake?

The Middle Ages was richer in such natures than we are. How seldom do we now meet a person who can keep living so peacefully and cheerfully with himself even amidst the turmoil, saying to himself like Goethe: 'The best is the deep quiet in which I live and grow against the world, and harvest what they cannot take from me by fire or sword.'

145

Life and experience. If one notices how some individuals know how to treat their experiences (their insignificant everyday experiences) so that these become a plot of ground that bears fruit three times a year; while others (and how many of them!) are driven through the waves of the most exciting turns of fate, of the most varied currents of their time or nation, and yet always stay lightly on the surface, like cork: then one is finally tempted to divide mankind into a minority (minimality) of those people who know how to make much out of little and a majority of those who know how to make a little out of much; indeed, one meets those perverse wizards who, instead of creating the world out of nothing, create nothing out of the world.

146

Seriousness in play. At sunset in Genoa, I heard from a tower a long chiming of bells: it kept on and on, and over the noise of the back streets, as if insatiable for itself, it rang out into the evening sky and the sea air, so terrible and so childish at the same time, so melancholy. Then I thought of Plato's words and felt them suddenly in my heart: all in all, nothing human is worth taking very seriously; nevertheless ...

147

On convictions and justice. To carry out later, in coolness and sobriety, what a man promises or decides in passion: this demand is among the heaviest burdens oppressing mankind. To have to acknowledge for all duration the consequences of anger, of raging vengeance, of enthusiastic devotion - this can incite a bitterness against these feelings all the greater because everywhere, and especially by artists, precisely these feelings are the object of idol worship. Artists cultivate the esteem for the passions, and have always done so; to be sure, they also glorify the frightful satisfactions of passion, in which one indulges, the outbursts of revenge that have death, mutilation, or voluntary banishment as a consequence, and the resignation of the broken heart. In any event, they keep alive curiosity about the passions; it is as if they wished to say: without passions you have experienced nothing at all.

Because we have vowed to be faithful, even, perhaps, to a purely imaginary being, a God, for instance; because we have given our heart to a prince, a party, a woman, a priestly order, an artist, or a thinker, in the state of blind madness that enveloped us in rapture and let those beings appear worthy of every honor, every sacrifice: are we then inextricably bound? Were we not deceiving ourselves then? Was it not a conditional promise, under the assumption (unstated, to be sure) that those beings to whom we dedicated ourselves really are the beings they appeared to be in our imaginations? Are we obliged to be faithful to our errors, even if we perceive that by this faithfulness we do damage to our higher self?

No - there is no law, no obligation of that kind; we must become traitors, act unfaithfully, forsake our ideals again and again. We do not pass from one period of life to another without causing these pains of betrayal, and without suffering from them in turn. Should we have to guard ourselves against the upsurging of our feeling in order to avoid these pains? Would not the world then become too bleak, too ghostly for us? We want rather to ask ourselves whether these pains at a change of conviction are necessary, or whether they do not depend on an erroneous opinion and estimation. Why do we admire the man who remains faithful to his conviction and despise the one who changes it? I fear the answer must be that everyone assumes such a change is caused only by motives of baser advantage or personal fear. That is, we believe fundamentally that no one changes his opinions as long as they are advantageous to him, or at least as long as they do him no harm. But if that is the case, it bears bad testimony to the intellectual meaning of all convictions. Let us test how convictions come into being and observe whether they are not vastly overrated: in that way it will be revealed that the change of convictions too is in any case measured by false standards and that until now we have tended to suffer too much from such changes.

148

Conviction is the belief that in some point of knowledge one possesses absolute truth. Such a belief presumes, then, that absolute truths exist; likewise, that the perfect methods for arriving at them have been found; finally, that every man who has convictions makes use of these perfect methods. All three assertions prove at once that the man of convictions is not the man of scientific thinking; he stands before us still in the age of theoretical innocence, a child, however grown-up he might be otherwise. But throughout thousands of years, people have lived in such childlike assumptions, and from out of them mankind's mightiest sources of power have flowed. The countless people who sacrificed themselves for their convictions thought they were doing it for absolute truth. All of them were wrong: probably no man has ever sacrificed himself for truth; at least, the dogmatic expression of his belief will have been unscientific or half-scientific. But actually one wanted to be right because one thought he had to be right. To let his belief be torn from him meant perhaps to put his eternal happiness in question. With a matter of this extreme importance, the 'will' was all too audibly the intellect's prompter. Every believer of every persuasion assumed he could not be refuted; if the counterarguments proved very strong, he could still always malign reason in general and perhaps even raise as a banner of extreme fanaticism the 'credo quia absurdum est.' It is not the struggle of opinions that has made history so violent, but rather the struggle of belief in opinions, that is, the struggle of convictions. If only all those people who thought so highly of their conviction, who sacrificed all sorts of things to it and spared neither their honor, body nor life in its service, had devoted only half of their strength to investigating by what right they clung to this or that conviction, how they had arrived at it, then how peaceable the history of mankind would appear! How much more would be known! All the cruel scenes during the persecution of every kind of heretic would have been spared us for two reasons: first, because the inquisitors would above all have inquired within themselves, and got beyond the arrogant idea that they were defending the absolute truth; and second, because the heretics themselves would not have granted such poorly established tenets as those of all the sectarians and 'orthodox' any further attention, once they had investigated them.

149

Stemming from the time when people were accustomed to believe that they possessed absolute truth is a deep discomfort with all skeptical and relativistic positions on any questions of knowledge; usually we prefer to surrender unconditionally to a conviction held by people of authority (fathers, friends, teachers, princes), and we have a kind of troubled conscience if we do not do so. This inclination is understandable and its consequences do not entitle us to violent reproaches against the development of human reason. But eventually the scientific spirit in man must bring forth that virtue of cautious restraint, that wise moderation that is better known in the realm of practical life than in the realm of theoretical life, and that Goethe, for example, portrayed in his Antonio, as an object of animosity for all Tassos, that is, for those unscientific and also passive natures. The man of conviction has in himself a right not to understand the man of cautious thinking, the theoretical Antonio; the scientific man, on the other hand, has no right to scold him for this; he makes allowances for him and knows besides that, in certain cases, the man will cling to him as Tasso finally does to Antonio.

150

If one has not passed through various convictions, but remains caught in the net of his first belief, he is in all events, because of just this unchangeability, a representative of backward cultures; in accordance with this lack of education (which always presupposes educability), he is harsh, injudicious, unteachable, without gentleness, eternally suspect, a person lacking scruples, who reaches for any means to enforce his opinion because he simply cannot understand that there have to be other opinions. In this regard, he is perhaps a source of power, and even salutary in cultures grown too free and lax, but only because he powerfully incites opposition: for in that way the new culture's more delicate structure, which is forced to struggle with him, becomes strong itself.

151

Essentially, we are still the same people as those in the period of the Reformation - and how should it be otherwise? But we no longer allow ourselves certain means to gain victory for our opinion: this distinguishes us from that age and proves that we belong to a higher culture. These days, if a man still attacks and crushes opinions with suspicions and outbursts of rage, in the manner of men during the Reformation, he clearly betrays that he would have burnt his opponents, had he lived in other times, and that he would have taken recourse to all the means of the Inquisition, had he lived as an opponent of the Reformation. In its time, the Inquisition was reasonable, for it meant nothing other than the general martial law which had to be proclaimed over the whole domain of the church, and which, like every state of martial law, justified the use of the extremest means, namely under the assumption (which we no longer share with those people) that one possessed truth in the church and had to preserve it at any cost, with any sacrifice, for the salvation of mankind. But now we will no longer concede so easily that anyone has the truth; the rigorous methods of inquiry have spread sufficient distrust and caution, so that we experience every man who represents opinions violently in word and deed as any enemy of our present culture, or at least as a backward person. And in fact, the fervor about having the truth counts very little today in relation to that other fervor, more gentle and silent, to be sure, for seeking the truth, a search that does not tire of learning afresh and testing anew.

152

Incidentally, the methodical search for truth itself results from those times when convictions were feuding among themselves. If the individual had not cared about his 'truth,' that is, about his being right in the end, no method of inquiry would exist at all; but, given the eternal struggle of various individuals' claims to absolute truth, man proceeded step by step, in order to find irrefutable principles by which the justice of the claims could be tested and the argument settled. At first decisions were made according to authorities, later the ways and means with which the ostensible truth had been found were mutually criticized; in between, there was a period when the consequences of the opposing tenet were drawn and perhaps experienced as harmful and saddening; this was to result in everyone's judging that the opponent's conviction contained an error. Finally, the thinkers' personal struggle sharpened their methods so much that truths could really be discovered, and the aberrations of earlier methods were exposed to everyone's eye.

153

All in all, scientific methods are at least as important as any other result of inquiry; for the scientific spirit is based on the insight into methods, and were those methods to be lost, all the results of science could not prevent a renewed triumph of superstition and nonsense. Clever people may learn the results of science as much as they like, one still sees from their conversation, especially from their hypotheses in conversation, that they lack the scientific spirit. They do not have that instinctive mistrust of the wrong ways of thinking, a mistrust which, as a consequence of long practice, has put its roots deep into the soul of every scientific man. For them it is enough to find any one hypothesis about a matter; then they get fired up about it and think that puts an end to it. For them, to have an opinion means to get fanatical about it and cherish it in their hearts henceforth as a conviction. If a matter is unexplained, they become excited at the first notion resembling an explanation that enters their brain; this always has the worst consequences, especially in the realm of politics.

Therefore everyone should have come to know at least one science in its essentials; then he knows what method is, and how necessary is the most extreme circumspection. This advice should be given to women particularly, who are now the hopeless victims of all hypotheses, especially those which give the impression of being witty, thrilling, invigorating, or energizing. In fact, if one looks closer, one notices that the majority of all educated people still desire convictions and nothing but convictions from a thinker, and that only a slight minority want certainty. The former want to be forcibly carried away, in order to thus increase their own strength; the latter few have that matter-of-fact interest that ignores personal advantage, even the above-mentioned increase of strength. Wherever the thinker behaves like a genius, calling himself one, and looking down like a higher being who deserves authority, he is counting on the class in the overwhelming majority. To the extent that that kind of genius keeps up the heat of convictions and awakens distrust of the cautious and modest spirit of science, he is an enemy of truth, however much he may believe he is its suitor.

154

To be sure, there is also quite another category of genius, that of justice; and I can in no way see fit to esteem that kind lower than any philosophical, political, or artistic genius. It is its way to avoid with hearty indignation everything which blinds and confuses our judgment about things; thus it is an enemy of convictions, for it wants to give each thing its due, be it living or dead, real or fictive - and to do so it must apprehend it clearly. Therefore it places each thing in the best light and walks all around it with an attentive eye. Finally it will even give its due to its opponent, to blind or shortsighted 'conviction' (as men call it; women call it 'faith') - for the sake of truth.

155

Out of passions grow opinions; mental sloth lets these rigidify into convictions.

However, if one feels he is of a free, restlessly lively mind, he can prevent this rigidity through constant change; and if he is on the whole a veritable thinking snowball, then he will have no opinions at all in his head, but rather only certainties and precisely measured probabilities.

But we who are of a mixed nature, sometimes aglow with fire and sometimes chilled by intellect, we want to kneel down before justice, as the only goddess whom we recognize above us. Usually the fire in us makes us unjust, and in the sense of that goddess, impure; never may we touch her hand in this condition; never will the grave smile of her pleasure lie upon us. We honor her as our life's veiled Isis; ashamed, we offer her our pain as a penance and a sacrifice, when the fire burns us and tries to consume us. It is the intellect that saves us from turning utterly to burnt-out coals; here and there it pulls us away from justice's sacrificial altar, or wraps us in an asbestos cocoon. Redeemed from the fire, we then stride on, driven by the intellect, from opinion to opinion, through the change of sides, as noble traitors to all things that can ever be betrayed - and yet with no feeling of guilt.

156

The wanderer. He who has come only in part to a freedom of reason cannot feel on earth otherwise than as a wanderer - though not as a traveler towards a final goal, for this does not exist. But he does want to observe, and keep his eyes open for everything that actually occurs in the world; therefore he must not attach his heart too firmly to any individual thing; there must be something wandering within him, which takes its joy in change and transitoriness. To be sure, such a man will have bad nights, when he is tired and finds closed the gates to the city that should offer him rest; perhaps in addition, as in the Orient, the desert reaches up to the gate; predatory animals howl now near, now far; a strong wind stirs; robbers lead off his pack-animals. Then for him the frightful night sinks over the desert like a second desert, and his heart becomes tired of wandering. If the morning sun then rises, glowing like a divinity of wrath, and the city opens up, he sees in the faces of its inhabitants perhaps more of desert, dirt, deception, uncertainty, than outside the gates - and the day is almost worse than the night. So it may happen sometimes to the wanderer; but then, as recompense, come the ecstatic mornings of other regions and days. Then nearby in the dawning light he already sees the bands of muses dancing past him in the mist of the mountains. Afterwards, he strolls quietly in the equilibrium of his forenoon soul, under trees from whose tops and leafy corners only good and bright things are thrown down to him, the gifts of all those free spirits who are at home in mountain, wood, and solitude, and who are, like him, in their sometimes merry, sometimes contemplative way, wanderers and philosophers. Born out of the mysteries of the dawn, they ponder how the day can have such a pure, transparent, transfigured and cheerful face between the hours of ten and twelve - they seek the philosophy of the forenoon.

2 Among Friends: An Epilogue

1

Fine, with one another silent,

Finer, with one another laughing -

Under heaven's silky cloth

Leaning over books and moss

With friends lightly, loudly laughing

Each one showing white teeth shining.



If I did well, let us be silent,

If I did badly, let us laugh

And do it bad again by half,

More badly done, more badly laugh,

Until the grave, when down we climb.



Friends! Well! What do you say?

Amen! Until we meet again!

2

Don't excuse it! Don't forgive!

You happy, heart-free people, give

This unreasonable book of mine

Ear and heart and sheltering!

Truly, friends, my own unreason

Did not grow to earn a curse!



What I find, what I am seeking -

Was that ever in a book?

Honor one from the fools' legion!

Learn from out of this fool's book

How reason can be brought - 'to reason'!



So then, friends, what do you say?

Amen! Until we meet again.

3 The Free Spirit

1

Osancta simplicitas! What strange simplification and falsification mankind lives in! One can never cease to marvel once one has acquired eyes for this marvel! How we have made everything around us bright and free and easy and simple! How we have known how to bestow on our senses a passport to everything superficial, on our thoughts a divine desire for wanton gambolling and false conclusions! - how we have from the very beginning understood how to retain our ignorance so as to enjoy an almost inconceivable freedom, frivolity, impetuosity, bravery, cheerfulness of life, so as to enjoy life! And only on this now firm and granite basis of ignorance has knowledge hitherto been able to rise up, the will to knowledge on the basis of a far more powerful will, the will to non-knowledge, to the uncertain, to the untrue! Not as its antithesis but - as its refinement! For even if, here as elsewhere, language cannot get over its coarseness and continues to speak of antitheses where there are only degrees and many subtleties of gradation; even if likewise the incarnate tartuffery of morals which is now part of our invincible 'flesh and blood' twists the words in the mouths even of us men of knowledge: here and there we grasp that fact and laugh at how it is precisely the best knowledge that wants most to hold us in this simplified, altogether artificial, fabricated, falsified world, how it is willy-nilly in love with error because, as a living being, it is - in love with life!

2

After so cheerful an exordium a serious word would like to be heard: it addresses itself to the most serious. Take care, philosophers and friends of knowledge, and beware of martyrdom! Of suffering 'for the sake of truth'! Even of defending yourselves! It spoils all the innocence and fine neutrality of your conscience, it makes you obstinate against rebuffs and red rags, it makes you stupid, brutal and bullish if in the struggle with danger, slander, suspicion, casting out and even grosser consequences of hostility you finally even have to act as defenders of truth on earth - as if 'truth' were so innocuous and inept a person she stood in need of defending! And precisely by you, you knights of most sorrowful countenance, you idlers and cobweb-spinners of the spirit! After all, you know well enough that it cannot matter in the least whether precisely you are in the right, just as no philosopher hitherto has been in the right, and that a more praiseworthy veracity may lie in every little question-mark placed after your favourite words and favourite theories (and occasionally after yourselves) than in all your solemn gesticulations and smart answers before courts and accusers! Better to step aside! Flee away and conceal yourselves! And have your masks and subtlety, so that you may be misunderstood! Or feared a little! And do not forget the garden, the garden with golden trellis-work. And have about you people who are like a garden - or like music on the waters in the evening, when the day is already becoming a memory; - choose the good solitude, the free, wanton, easy solitude which gives you too a right to remain in some sense good! How poisonous, how cunning, how bad every protracted war makes one when it cannot be waged with open force! How personal a protracted fear makes one, a protracted keeping watch for enemies, for possible enemies! These outcasts of society, long persecuted and sorely hunted - also the enforced recluses, the Spinozas and Giordano Brunos - in the end always become refined vengeance-seekers and brewers of poison, even if they do so under the most spiritual masquerade and perhaps without being themselves aware of it (just dig up the foundation of Spinoza's ethics and theology!) - not to speak of the stupidity of moral indignation, which is in the philosopher an unfailing sign that he has lost his philosophical sense of humour. The martyrdom of the philosopher, his 'sacrifice for truth', brings to light what there has been in him of agitator and actor; and if one has hitherto regarded him only with artistic curiosity, in the case of many a philosopher it is easy to understand the dangerous desire to see him for once in his degeneration(degenerated into 'martyr', into stageand platform ranter). But if one does harbour such a desire, one has to be clear what it is one will get to see-merely a satyr play, merely a farcical after-piece, merely a continuing proof that the long tragedy has come to an end: supposing that every philosophy was in its inception a long tragedy. -

3

Every superior human being will instinctively aspire after a secret citadel where he is set free from the crowd, the many, the majority, where, as its exception, he may forget the rule 'man' - except in the one case in which, as a man of knowledge in the great and exceptional sense, he will be impelled by an even stronger instinct to make straight for this rule. He who, when trafficking with men, does not occasionally glisten with all the shades of distress, green and grey with disgust, satiety, sympathy, gloom and loneliness, is certainly not a man of an elevated taste; but if he does not voluntarily assume this burden and displeasure, if he continually avoids it and, as aforesaid, remains hidden quietly and proudly away in his citadel, then one thing is sure: he is not made, not predestined for knowledge. For if he were, he would one day have to say to himself: 'The devil can take my good taste! the rule is more interesting than the exception - than I, the exception!' - and would go down, would above all 'go in'. The study of the average human being, protracted, serious, and with much dissembling, self-overcoming, intimacy, bad company - all company is bad company except the company of one's equals -: this constitutes a necessary part of the life story of every philosopher, perhaps the most unpleasant and malodorous part and the part most full of disappointments. If he is lucky, however, as a favourite child of knowledge ought to be, he will encounter means of facilitating and cutting short his task - I mean so-called cynics, that is to say people who recognize the animal, the commonness, the 'rule' in themselves and yet still possess a degree of spirituality and appetite which constrains them to speak of themselves and their kind before witnesses - sometimes they even wallow in books as in their own dung. Cynicism is the only form in which common souls come close to honesty; and the higher man must prick up his ears at every cynicism, whether coarse or refined, and congratulate himself whenever a buffoon without shame or a scientific satyr speaks out in his presence. There are even cases in which fascination mingles with the disgust: namely where, by a caprice of nature, such an indiscreet goat and monkey is touched with genius, as in the case of the Abbé Galiani, the profoundest, most sharp-sighted and perhaps also dirtiest man of his century - he was far more profound than Voltaire and consequently also a good deal more silent. It is more often the case that, as already indicated, a scientific head is set on a monkey's body, a refined exceptional understanding on a common soul - no rare occurrence, for instance, among physicians and moral physiologists. And whenever anyone speaks, without bitterness, rather innocuously, of man as a belly with two needs and a head with one; wherever anyone sees, seeks and wants to see only hunger, sexual desire, and vanity, as though these were the actual and sole motives of human actions; in brief, whenever anyone speaks 'badly' of man - but does not speak ill of him - the lover of knowledge should listen carefully and with diligence, and he should in general lend an ear whenever anyone speaks without indignation. For the indignant man, and whoever is continually tearing and rending himself with his teeth (or, instead of himself, the world, or God, or society) may indeed morally speaking stand higher than the laughing and self-satisfied satyr, but in every other sense he is the more commonplace, less interesting, less instructive case. And no one lies so much as the indignant man.

4

It is hard to be understood: especially when one thinks and lives gangasrotogati among men who think and live otherwise, namely kurmagati or at best 'as the frog goes', mandeikagati - I am certainly doing everything I can to be hard to understand myself! - and one ought to be heartily grateful even for the will to some subtlety in interpretation. As regards one's 'good friends', however, who are always too indolent and think that because they are one's friends they have a right to indolence: one does well to allow them from the first some room and latitude for misunderstanding - thus one can laugh at their expense; - or get rid of them altogether, these good friends and still laugh!

5

That which translates worst from one language into another is the tempo of its style, which has its origin in the character of the race, or, expressed more physiologically, in the average tempo of its 'metabolism'. There are honestly meant translations which, as involuntary vulgarizations of the original, are almost falsifications simply because it was not possible to translate also its brave and happy tempo, which leaps over and puts behind it all that is perilous in things and words. The German is virtually incapable of presto in his language: thus, it may be fairly concluded, also of many of the most daring and delightful nuances of free, free-spirited thought. Just as the buffo and the satyr is strange to him, in his body and in his conscience, so Aristophanes and Petronius are untranslatable for him. Everything staid, sluggish, ponderously solemn, all long-winded and boring species of style have been developed in profuse multiplicity among the Germans - pardon me for the fact that even Goethe's prose is, in its blend of elegance and stiffness, no exception: it is a reflection of the 'good old days', to which it belongs, and an expression of the German taste of a time when there still was a 'German taste': it was rococo in moribus et artibus. Lessing constitutes an exception, thanks to his histrionic nature, which was versed in and understood much: he, who was not for nothing the translator of Bayle and liked to flee to the neighbourhood of Diderot and Voltaire and even more to that of the Roman writers of comedy - in tempo too Lessing loved freespiritedness, escape from Germany. But how could the German language, even in the prose of a Lessing, imitate the tempo of Machiavelli, who in his Principe lets us breathe the subtle dry air of Florence and cannot help presenting the most serious affairs in a boisterous allegrissimo: not perhaps without a malicious artist's sense of the contrast he is risking - thoughts protracted, difficult, hard, dangerous and the tempo of the gallop and the most wanton good humour. Who, finally, would venture a German translation of Petronius, who was, to a greater degree than any great musician has hitherto been, a master of presto in invention, ideas, words - what do all the swamps of the sick wicked world, even of the 'antique world', matter when one has, like him, the feet of a wind, the blast and breath, the liberating scorn of a wind that makes everything healthy by making everything run! And as for Aristophanes, that transfiguring, complementary spirit for whose sake one excuses all Greece for having existed, assuming one has grasped in all its profundity what there is to be excused and transfigured here - I know of nothing that has led me to reflect more on Plato's concealment and sphinx nature than that happily preserved petit fait that under the pillow of his death-bed there was discovered no 'Bible', nothing Egyptian, Pythagorean, Platonic-but Aristophanes. How could even a Plato have endured life - a Greek life which he had denied - without an Aristophanes!

6

Few are made for independence - it is a privilege of the strong. And he who attempts it, having the completest right to it but without being compelled to, thereby proves that he is probably not only strong but also daring to the point of recklessness. He ventures into a labyrinth, he multiplies by a thousand the dangers which life as such already brings with it, not the smallest of which is that no one can behold how and where he goes astray, is cut off from others, and is torn to pieces limb from limb by some cave-minotaur of conscience. If such a one is destroyed, it takes place so far from the understanding of men that they neither feel it nor sympathize - and he can no longer go back! He can no longer go back even to the pity of men!

7

Our supreme insights must - and should! - sound like follies, in certain cases like crimes, when they come impermissibly to the ears of those who are not predisposed and predestined for them. The exoteric and the esoteric as philosophers formerly distinguished them, among the Indians as among the Greeks, Persians and Moslems, in short wherever one believed in an order of rank and not in equality and equal rights - differ one from another not so much in that the exoteric stands outside and sees, evaluates, measures, judges from the outside, not from the inside: what is more essential is that this class sees things from below - but the esoteric sees them from above! There are heights of the soul seen from which even tragedy ceases to be tragic; and, taking all the woe of the world together, who could venture to assert that the sight of it would have to seduce and compel us to pity and thus to a doubling of that woe? ... What serves the higher type of man as food or refreshment must to a very different and inferior type be almost poison. The virtues of the common man would perhaps indicate vice and weakness in a philosopher; it may be possible that if a lofty type of man degenerated and perished, he would only thus acquire qualities on whose account it would prove necessary in the lower world into which he had sunk henceforth to venerate him as a saint. There are books which possess an opposite value for soul and health depending on whether the lower soul, the lower vitality, or the higher and more powerful avails itself of them: in the former case they are dangerous, disintegrative books, which produces dissolution, in the latter they are herald calls challenging the most courageous to their courage. Books for everybody are always malodorous books: the smell of petty people clings to them. Where the people eats and drinks, even where it worships, there is usually a stink. One should not go into churches if one wants to breathe pure air.

8

In our youthful years we respect and despise without that art of nuance which constitutes the best thing we gain from life, and, as is only fair, we have to pay dearly for having assailed men and things with Yes and No in such a fashion. Everything is so regulated that the worst of all tastes, the taste for the unconditional, is cruelly misused and made a fool of until a man learns to introduce a little art into his feelings and even to venture trying the artificial: as genuine artists of life do. The anger and reverence characteristic of youth seem to allow themselves no peace until they have falsified men and things in such a way that they can vent themselves on them - youth as such is something that falsifies and deceives. Later, when the youthful soul, tormented by disappointments, finally turns suspiciously on itself, still hot and savage even in its suspicion and pangs of conscience: how angry it is with itself now, how it impatiently rends itself, how it takes revenge for its long self-delusion, as if it had blinded itself deliberately! During this transition one punishes oneself by distrusting one's feelings; one tortures one's enthusiasm with doubts, indeed one feels that even a good conscience is a danger, as though a good conscience were a screening of oneself and a sign that one's subtler honesty had grown weary; and above all one takes sides, takes sides on principle, against 'youth'. - A decade later: and one grasps that all this too - was still youth!

9

Throughout the longest part of human history - it is called prehistoric times - the value or non-value of an action was derived from its consequences: the action itself came as little into consideration as did its origin, but, in much the same way as today in China a distinction or disgrace reflects back from the child onto its parents, so it was the retroactive force of success or failure which led men to think well or ill of an action. Let us call this period the pre-moral period of mankind: the imperative 'know thyself!' was then still unknown. Over the past ten thousand years, on the other hand, one has in a few large tracts of the earth come step by step to the point at which it is no longer the consequences but the origin of the action which determines its value: a great event, taken as a whole, a considerable refinement of vision and standard, the unconscious after-effect of the sovereignty of aristocratic values and of belief in 'origins', the sign of a period which may be called the moral in the narrower sense: the first attempt at self-knowledge has been made. Instead of the consequences, the origin: what an inversion of perspectives! And certainly one achieved only after protracted struggles and vacillations! To be sure, a fateful new superstition, a peculiar narrowness of interpretation therewith became dominant: men interpreted the origin of an action in the most definite sense as origin in an intention; men became unanimous in the belief that the value of an action resided in the value of the intention behind it. The intention as the whole origin and prehistory of an action: it is under the sway of this prejudice that one has morally praised, blamed, judged and philosophized on earth almost to the present day. - But ought we not today to have arrived at the necessity of once again determining upon an inversion and shift of values, thanks to another self-examination and deepening on the part of man - ought we not to stand on the threshold of a period which should be called, negatively at first, the extra-moral: today, when among us immoralists at least the suspicion has arisen that the decisive value of an action resides in precisely that which is not intentional in it, and that all that in it which is intentional, all of it that can be seen, known, 'conscious', still belongs to its surface and skin - which, like every skin, betrays something but conceals still more? In brief, we believe that the intention is only a sign and symptom that needs interpreting, and a sign, moreover, that signifies too many things and which thus taken by itself signifies practically nothing - that morality in the sense in which it has been understood hitherto, that is to say the morality of intentions, has been a prejudice, a precipitancy, perhaps something provisional and precursory, perhaps something of the order of astronomy and alchemy, but in any event something that must be overcome. The overcoming of morality, in a certain sense even the self-overcoming of morality: let this be the name for that protracted secret labour which has been reserved for the subtlest, most honest and also most malicious consciences as living touchstones of the soul.

10

There is nothing for it: the feelings of devotion, self-sacrifice for one's neighbour, the entire morality of self-renunciation must be taken mercilessly to task and brought to court: likewise the aesthetics of 'disinterested contemplation' through which the emasculation of art today tries, seductively enough, to give itself a good conscience. There is much too much sugar and sorcery in those feelings of 'for others', of 'not for me', for one not to have to become doubly distrustful here and to ask: 'are they not perhaps - seductions?' That they give pleasure - to him who has them and to him who enjoys their fruits, also to the mere spectator - does not yet furnish an argument in their favour, but urges us rather to caution. So let us be cautious!

11

Whatever standpoint of philosophy we may adopt today: from every point of view the erroneousness of the world in which we believe we live is the surest and firmest thing we can get our eyes on - we find endless grounds for it which would like to lure us to suppose a deceptive principle in the 'nature of things'. But he who makes our thinking itself, that is to say 'the mind', responsible for the falsity of the world - an honourable way out taken by every conscious or unconscious advocatus dei - : he who takes this world, together with space, time, form, motion, to be the result of a false conclusion: such a one would have good cause, to say the least, to learn finally to mistrust thinking itself: would it not have played on us the biggest hoax ever? and what guarantee would there be that it would not go on doing what it has always done? In all seriousness: the innocence of thinkers has something touching and inspiring of reverence in it which permits them even today to go up to consciousness and ask it to give them honest answers: whether it is 'real', for example, and why it really keeps the external world so resolutely at a distance, and other questions of the sort. The belief in 'immediate certainties' is a piece of moral naivety which does honour to us philosophers: but - we ought not to be 'merely moral' men! Apart from the moral aspect, that belief is a piece of stupidity which does us little honour! In civil life an ever-ready mistrustfulness may count as a sign of 'bad character' and thus be an imprudent thing to have: here among us, beyond the civil world and its Yes and No - what is there to stop us from being imprudent and saying: the philosopher, as the creature which has hitherto always been most fooled on earth, has by now a right to 'bad character' - he has today the duty to be distrustful, to squint wickedly up out of every abyss of suspicion. - You must forgive me this humorous expression and grimace: for I have long since learned to think differently, to judge differently on the subject of deceiving and being deceived, and I keep in readiness at least a couple of jabs in the ribs for the blind rage with which philosophers resist being deceived. Why not? It is no more than a moral prejudice that truth is worth more than appearance; it is even the worst-proved assumption that exists. Let us concede at least this much: there would be no life at all if not on the basis of perspective evaluations and appearances; and if, with the virtuous enthusiasm and awkwardness exhibited by some philosophers, one wanted to abolish the 'apparent world' altogether, well, assuming you could do that - at any rate nothing would remain of your 'truth' either! Indeed, what compels us to assume there exists any essential antithesis between 'true' and 'false'? Is it not enough to suppose grades of apparentness and as it were lighter and darker shades and tones of appearance - different valeurs, to speak in the language of painters? Why could the world which is of any concern to us - not be a fiction? And he who then objects: 'but to the fiction there belongs an author?' - could he not be met with the round retort: why? Does this 'belongs' perhaps not also belong to the fiction? Are we not permitted to be a little ironical now about the subject as we are about the predicate and object? Ought the philosopher not to rise above the belief in grammar? All due respect to governesses: but is it not time that philosophy renounced the beliefs of governesses?

12

Oh Voltaire! Oh humanity! Oh imbecility! There is some point to 'truth', to the search for truth; and if a human being goes about it too humanely - 'il ne cherche le vrai que pour faire le bien' - I wager he finds nothing!

13

Granted that nothing is 'given' as real except our world of desires and passions, that we can rise or sink to no other 'reality' than the reality of our drives - for thinking is only the relationship of these drives to one another - : is it not permitted to make the experiment and ask the question whether this which is given does not suffice for an understanding even of the so-called mechanical (or 'material') world? I do not mean as a deception, an 'appearance', an 'idea' (in the Berkeleyan and Schopenhaueran sense), but as possessing the same degree of reality as our emotions themselves - as a more primitive form of the world of emotions in which everything still lies locked in mighty unity and then branches out and develops in the organic process (also, as is only fair, is made weaker and more sensitive), as a kind of instinctual life in which all organic functions, together with self-regulation, assimilation, nourishment, excretion, metabolism, are still synthetically bound together - as an antecedent form of life? - In the end, it is not merely permitted to make this experiment: it is commanded by the conscience of method. Not to assume several kinds of causality so long as the experiment of getting along with one has not been taken to its ultimate limits (- to the point of nonsense, if I may say so): that is a morality of method which one may not repudiate nowadays - it follows 'from its definition', as a mathematician would say. In the end, the question is whether we really recognize will as efficient, whether we believe in the causality of will: if we do so - and fundamentally belief in this is precisely our belief in causality itself - then we have to make the experiment of positing causality of will hypothetically as the only one. 'Will' can of course operate only on 'will' - and not on 'matter' (not on 'nerves', for example -): enough, one must venture the hypothesis that wherever 'effects' are recognized, will is operating upon will - and that all mechanical occurrences, in so far as a force is active in them, are force of will, effects of will. - Granted finally that one succeeded in explaining our entire instinctual life as the development and ramification of one basic form of will - as will to power, as is my theory -; granted that one could trace all organic functions back to this will to power and could also find in it the solution to the problem of procreation and nourishment - they are one problem - one would have acquired the right to define all efficient force unequivocally as: will to power. The world seen from within, the world described and defined according to its 'intelligible character' - it would be 'will to power' and nothing else.

14

'What? Does that, to speak vulgarly, not mean: God is refuted but the devil is not -?' On the contrary! On the contrary, my friends! And who the devil compels you to speak vulgarly! -

15

As happened lately, in all the clarity of modern times, with the French Revolution, that gruesome and, closely considered, superfluous farce, into which, however, noble and enthusiastic spectators all over Europe interpeted from a distance their own indignations and raptures so long and so passionately that the text disappeared beneath the interpretation: so a noble posterity could once again misunderstand the entire past and only thus perhaps make the sight of it endurable. - Or rather: has this not already happened? have we ourselves not been this 'noble posterity'? And, in so far as we comprehend this, is it not at this moment - done with?

16

No one is likely to consider a doctrine true merely because it makes happy or makes virtuous: excepting perhaps the dear 'idealists', who rapturize over the good, the true and the beautiful and let all kinds of colourful, clumsy and good-natured desiderata swim about together in their pond. Happiness and virtue are no arguments. But even thoughtful spirits like to forget that making unhappy and making evil are just as little counter-arguments. Something might be true although at the same time harmful and dangerous in the highest degree; indeed, it could pertain to the fundamental nature of existence that a complete knowledge of it would destroy one - so that the strength of a spirit could be measured by how much 'truth' it could take, more clearly, to what degree it needed it attenuated, veiled, sweetened, blunted, and falsified. But there can be no doubt that for the discovery of certain parts of truth the wicked and unhappy are in a more favourable position and are more likely to succeed; not to speak of the wicked who are happy - a species about whom the moralists are silent. Perhaps severity and cunning provide more favourable conditions for the formation of the strong, independent spirit and philosopher than does that gentle, sweet, yielding good-naturedness and art of taking things lightly which is prized in a scholar and rightly prized. Supposing in advance that the concept 'philosopher' is not limited to the philosopher who writes books - or, worse, writes books of his philosophy! - A final trait in the image of the free-spirited philosopher is provided by Stendhal, and in view of what German taste is I do not want to fail to emphasize it - for it goes against German taste. 'Pour être bon philosophe', said this last great psychologist, 'il faut être sec, clair, sans illusion. Un banquier, qui a fait fortune, a une partie du caractère requis pour faire des découvertes en philosophic, c'est-à-dire pour voir clair dans ce qui est.'

17

Everything profound loves the mask; the profoundest things of all hate even image and parable. Should not nothing less than the opposite be the proper disguise under which the shame of a god goes abroad? A questionable question: it would be strange if some mystic or other had not already ventured to meditate some such thing. There are occurrences of so delicate a description that one does well to bury them and make them unrecognizable with a piece of coarseness; there are acts of love and extravagant magnanimity after which nothing is more advisable than to take a stick and give the eyewitness a thrashing and so confuse his memory. Some know how to confuse and mistreat their own memory, so as to take revenge at least on this sole confidant - shame is inventive. It is not the worst things of which one is most ashamed: there is not only deceit behind a mask - there is so much goodness in cunning. I could believe that a man who had something fragile and valuable to conceal might roll through life thick and round as an old, green, thick-hooped wine barrel: the refinement of his shame would have it so. A man whose shame has depth encounters his destinies and delicate decisions too on paths which very few ever reach and of whose existence his intimates and neighbours may not know: his mortal danger is concealed from their eyes, as is the fact that he has regained his sureness of life. Such a hidden man, who instinctively uses speech for silence and concealment and is inexhaustible in evading communication, wants a mask of him to roam the heads and hearts of his friends in his stead, and he makes sure that it does so; and supposing he does not want it, he will one day come to see that a mask is there in spite of that - and that that is a good thing. Every profound spirit needs a mask: more, around every profound spirit a mask is continually growing, thanks to the constantly false, that is to say shallow interpretation of every word he speaks, every step he takes, every sign of life he gives.

18

One must test oneself to see whether one is destined for independence and command; and one must do so at the proper time. One should not avoid one's tests, although they are perhaps the most dangerous game one could play and are in the end tests which are taken before ourselves and before no other judge. Not to cleave to another person, though he be the one you love most - every person is a prison, also a nook and corner. Not to cleave to a fatherland, though it be the most suffering and in need of help - it is already easier to sever your heart from a victorious fatherland. Not to cleave to a feeling of pity, though it be for higher men into whose rare torment and helplessness chance allowed us to look. Not to cleave to a science, though it lures one with the most precious discoveries seemingly reserved precisely for us. Not to cleave to one's own detachment, to that voluptuous remoteness and strangeness of the bird which flies higher and higher so as to see more and more beneath it - the danger which threatens the flier. Not to cleave to our own virtues and become as a whole the victim of some part of us, of our 'hospitality' for example, which is the danger of dangers for rich and noble souls who expend themselves prodigally, almost indifferently, and take the virtue of liberality to the point where it becomes a vice. One must know how to conserve oneself: the sternest test of independence.

19

A new species of philosopher is appearing: I venture to baptize these philosophers with a name not without danger in it. As I divine them, as they let themselves be divined - for it pertains to their nature to want to remain a riddle in some respects - these philosophers of the future might rightly, but perhaps also wrongly, be described as attempters. This name itself is in the end only an attempt and, if you will, a temptation.

20

Are they new friends of 'truth', these coming philosophers? In all probability: for all philosophers have hitherto loved their truths. But certainly they will not be dogmatists. It must offend their pride, and also their taste, if their truth is supposed to be a truth for everyman, which has hitherto been the secret desire and hidden sense of all dogmatic endeavours. 'My judgement is my judgement: another cannot easily acquire a right to it' - such a philosopher of the future may perhaps say. One has to get rid of the bad taste of wanting to be in agreement with many. 'Good' is no longer good when your neighbour takes it into his mouth. And how could there exist a 'common good'! The expression is a self-contradiction: what can be common has ever but little value. In the end it must be as it is and has always been: great things are for the great, abysses for the profound, shudders and delicacies for the refined, and, in sum, all rare things for the rare.

21

After all this do I still need to say that they too will be free, very free spirits, these philosophers of the future - just as surely as they will not be merely free spirits, but something more, higher, greater and thoroughly different that does not want to be misunderstood or taken for what it is not. But in saying this I feel I have a duty, almost as much towards them as towards us, their heralds and precursors, us free spirits! - to blow away from all of us an ancient and stupid prejudice and misunderstanding which has all too long obscured the concept 'free spirit' like a fog. In all the countries of Europe and likewise in America there exists at present something that misuses this name, a very narrow, enclosed, chained-up species of spirits who desire practically the opposite of that which informs our aims and instincts - not to mention the fact that in regard to those new philosophers appearing they must certainly be closed windows and bolted doors. They belong, in short and regrettably, among the levellers, these falsely named 'free spirits' - eloquent and tirelessly scribbling slaves of the democratic taste and its 'modern ideas', men without solitude one and all, without their own solitude, good clumsy fellows who, while they cannot be denied courage and moral respectability, are unfree and ludicrously superficial, above all in their fundamental inclination to see in the forms of existing society the cause of practically all human failure and misery: which is to stand the truth happily on its head! What with all their might they would like to strive after is the universal green pasture happiness of the herd, with security, safety, comfort and an easier life for all; their two most oft-recited doctrines and ditties are 'equality of rights' and 'sympathy for all that suffers' - and suffering itself they take for something that has to be abolished. We, who are the opposite of this, and have opened our eyes and our conscience to the question where and how the plant 'man' has hitherto grown up most vigorously, we think that this has always happened under the opposite conditions, that the perilousness of his situation had first to become tremendous, his powers of invention and dissimulation (his 'spirit' - ) had, under protracted pressure and constraint, to evolve into subtlety and daring, his will to life had to be intensified into unconditional will to power - we think that severity, force, slavery, peril in the street and in the heart, concealment, stoicism, the art of experiment and devilry of every kind, that everything evil, dreadful, tyrannical, beast of prey and serpent in man serves to enhance the species 'man' just as much as does its opposite - we do not say enough when we say even that much, and at any rate we are, in what we say and do not say on this point, at the other end from all modern ideology and herd desiderata: at its antipodes perhaps? Is it any wonder we 'free spirits' are not precisely the most communicative of spirits? that we do not want to betray in every respect from what a spirit can free itself and to what it is then perhaps driven? And as for the dangerous formula 'beyond good and evil' with which we at any rate guard against being taken for what we are not: we are something different from 'libres-penseurs', 'liberi pensatori', 'Freidenker', or whatever else all these worthy advocates of 'modern ideas' like to call themselves. At home in many countries of the spirit, or at least having been guests there; having again and again eluded the agreeable musty nooks and corners into which predilection and prejudice, youth, origin, the accidents of people and books, or even weariness from wandering seemed to have consigned us; full of malice towards the lures of dependence which reside in honours, or money, or offices, or raptures of the senses; grateful even to distress and changeful illness because it has always liberated us from some rule and its 'prejudice', grateful to the god, devil, sheep and worm in us, curious to the point of vice, investigators to the point of cruelty, with rash fingers for the ungraspable, with teeth and stomach for the most indigestible, ready for every task that demands acuteness and sharp senses, ready for every venture thanks to a superfluity of 'free will', with fore- and back-souls into whose ultimate intentions no one can easily see, with fore- and backgrounds to whose end no foot may go, hidden under mantles of light, conquerors even though we look like heirs and prodigals, collectors and arrangers from morn till night, misers of our riches and our full-crammed cupboards, thrifty in learning and forgetting, inventive in schemata, sometimes proud of tables of categories, sometimes pedants, sometimes night owls of labour even in broad daylight; yes, even scarecrows when we need to be - and today we need to be: in so far, that is, as we are born, sworn, jealous friends of solitude, of our own deepest, most midnight, most midday solitude - such a type of man are we, we free spirits! and perhaps you too are something of the same type, you coming men? you new philosophers?

4 From High Mountains: Epode

Oh life's midday! Oh festival! Oh garden of summer! I wait in restless ecstasy, I stand and watch and wait - where are you, friends? It is you I await, in readiness day and night. Come now! It is time you were here!



Was it not for you the glacier today exchanged its grey for roses? The brook seeks you; and wind and clouds press higher in the blue, longingly they crowd aloft to look for you.



For you have I prepared my table in the highest height - who lives so near the stars as I, or who so near the depths of the abyss? My empire - has an empire ever reached so far? And my honey - who has tasted the sweetness of it?



- And there you are, friends! - But, alas, am I not he you came to visit? You hesitate, you stare - no, be angry, rather! Is it no longer - I? Are hand, step, face transformed? And what I am, to you friends - I am not?



Am I another? A stranger to myself? Sprung from myself? A wrestler who subdued himself too often? Turned his own strength against himself too often, checked and wounded by his own victory?



Did I seek where the wind bites keenest, learn to live where no one lives, in the desert where only the polar bear lives, unlearn to pray and curse, unlearn man and god, become a ghost flitting across the glaciers?



- Old friends! how pale you look, how full of love and terror! No - be gone! Be not angry! Here - you could not be at home: here in this far domain of ice and rocks - here you must be a huntsman, and like the Alpine goat.



A wicked huntsman is what I have become! - See how bent my bow! He who drew that bow, surely he was the mightiest of men - : but the arrow, alas - ah, no arrow is dangerous as that arrow is dangerous - away! be gone! For your own preservation! ...



You turn away? - O heart, you have borne up well, your hopes stayed strong: now keep your door open to new friends! Let the old go! Let memories go! If once you were young, now - you are younger!



What once united us, the bond of one hope - who still can read the signs love once inscribed therein, now faint and faded? It is like a parchment - discoloured, scorched - from which the hand shrinks back.



No longer friends, but - what shall I call them? - they are the ghosts of friends which at my heart and window knock at night, which gaze on me and say: 'were we once friends?' - oh faded word, once fragrant as the rose!



Oh longing of youth, which did not know itself! Those I longed for, those I deemed changed into kin of mine - that they have aged is what has banished them: only he who changes remains akin to me.



Oh life's midday! Oh second youth! Oh garden of summer! I wait in restless ecstasy, I stand and watch and wait - it is friends I await, in readiness day and night, new friends. Come now! It is time you were here!



This song is done - desire's sweet cry died on the lips: a sorcerer did it, the timely friend, the midday friend - no! ask not who he is - at midday it happened, at midday one became two ...



Now, sure of victory together, we celebrate the feast of feasts: friend Zarathrustra has come, the guest of guests! Now the world is laughing, the dread curtain is rent, the wedding day has come for light and darkness...

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卷 一

1.从祖父维鲁斯身上,我首先学会了谦恭有礼和心平气和。



2.从别人对父亲的描述和我对他的回忆中,我学会了毫不卖弄的阳刚之气。



3.母亲为我树立了典范:虔诚宽仁,不仅在行为上,更从思想上避免冷酷无情;生活简朴,与有钱人的习惯截然不同。



4.遵从曾祖父的劝告,我摒弃了学校教育,择名师授业于家,并且认识到为此应该不吝惜金钱。



5.我的导师劝诫我,要不偏不倚地对待赛场中蓝方或绿方 〔1〕 的御车手,对待角斗场上手执轻盾或重盾 〔2〕 的角斗士;他还勉励我不要对工作心怀畏惧,要克制自己的欲望,注重自己的基本需求,专注自己的工作,绝不听信流言蜚语。



6.感谢狄奥格奈特,他让我懂得不能沉溺于琐事;不能轻信术士和魔术师关于符咒、驱魔术之类的无稽之谈;不要染指斗鸡或其他类似的消遣;不要对耿直忠言愤懑不已;要熟读哲学著作,先读巴克切斯的作品,继之以坦达西斯和马西安的作品;年少时就要开始写作;要贴身睡在简陋的木板床上却乐此不疲,并热衷于施行希腊哲学中其他的清规戒律。



7.卢斯提库斯使我认识到:我的性格需要锤炼和呵护;绝不让自己被引入歧途,像个诡辩者那样,热衷于编造投机取巧的论著,创建说教或写作虚构的禁欲主义或利他主义短文。他还让我避开修辞学、诗歌,避免用矫揉造作的言辞,不要在家中穿着华服装模作样,或者做出别的没有品位的事情;而应该学习用清新自然的书信体文风,就像他在西努埃萨写给我母亲的信件那样。如果有人一怒之下与我发生口角,但凡他有想和解的表示,我应当准备随时与之冰释前嫌。还有,读书务求甚解,不能满足于懂得大概意思,也不能轻易被如簧巧舌说服。在他的帮助下,我还逐渐了解了埃皮克提图所著的《论文集》。这本书是老师从自己的藏书里拿出来送给我的。



8.阿波罗尼斯教导我:凡事要乾坤独断,切莫心存侥幸,始终不忘理性地思考问题。他还教导我以不变应万变,沉着应对突如其来的阵阵剧痛、丧子之痛和慢性病的折磨。精力最充沛的人也需兼具放松心态的能力,他自己就是个活榜样。他的论著向来条理清晰,堪称典范;然而,他却显然把丰富的实践经验和教授哲学的天赋看成自己最微不足道的成就。他还教会我如何面对友人的虚情假意,既不有损自尊又不给别人留下冷漠的印象。



9.承蒙塞克司图斯先生的教诲,我学会了善良仁慈,以父式权威治家,懂得了合乎自然的生活真谛,浑然天成的尊严,真诚为朋友利益着想,对待门外汉和空想家要耐心和蔼。他对任何人都以礼相待,在人际交往中,这种有礼貌的举止比任何恭维话都更有效地增添他的人格魅力,同时也使在场的所有人都对他怀有十足的敬意。在确定自己生活要义并使之系统化的时候,他的方法不仅全面而且有条不紊。他从不流露愤怒或者其他强烈情绪,他脸上不露声色,但内心却充满柔情。他总是以平和内敛的方式表示赞许,从不炫耀自己渊博的学识。



10.批评家亚历山大提醒我不要吹毛求疵。人们语法不好,说话带着乡音,发音错误,纠正他们时态度不要严厉,最好以巧妙的方式建议他们使用某一恰当的表达方法,例如,通过回答他们的问题,对其观点表示默许,或者就某一话题本身(而不是措词)展开友好讨论,或者用其他适当的方式加以提醒。



11.我的导师佛隆托使我认识到,心怀恶意、诡计多端、口是心非皆是绝对权力的伴生物;而我们那些达官显贵偏偏大多缺乏普通人的情感。



12.柏拉图主义者亚历山大告诫我,说话和写信切忌频繁使用“我太忙了”这样的字眼,除非确有必要;他认为,任何人都不应该以忙于急务为借口,逃避对社会应尽的义务。



13.斯多葛派哲学家卡图卢斯劝告我,即便友人的批评颇为不近情理,也不要轻视它,而应该竭力设法挽回对方的好感;要欣然地高声赞扬我的导师们,就像我们在多米提乌斯和雅特洛多图斯的回忆录中读到的那样;要培养跟子女的真挚情感。



14.从我的兄弟塞维鲁斯身上,我学会了热爱家人、热爱真理、热爱正义。在他的帮助下,我逐渐熟悉了特拉塞亚、卡托、赫尔维狄乌斯、狄昂、布鲁图斯,也逐渐熟悉了这样的概念:一个建立在全民平等、言论自由基础之上的社会和一个以维护臣民自由为第一要务的君主制。他让我懂得要以公平客观的态度评价哲学,乐善好施、慷慨大方、乐观向上,要对友情深信不疑。我还记得,他批评别人不拐弯抹角,对朋友不隐瞒自己的好恶,总是直言相告。



15.马克西姆斯自制力强,意志坚定,无论是身体欠佳还是身陷不幸总是开朗达观,堪为我的榜样。他品格高贵富于魅力,二者极好地融为一体。他不声不响地守职尽责,从不大惊小怪。他让每个人坚信,他心口如一,认为正确的事情就必定付诸行动。他从不困惑或胆怯,从不手忙脚乱、拖拖拉拉,做任何事情都心中有数。他不会任凭自己垂头丧气或是强作欢颜,也不会被愤怒、嫉妒或其他情绪所左右。他心地善良,富有同情心,待人真诚,给人一派谦谦君子的印象,这种气质是天生的,绝非后天教诲而成。人们在他面前从不觉得低人一等,也没人胆敢挑战他的卓尔不群。他也颇具幽默感,为人和蔼可亲。



16.父亲 〔3〕 身上的优秀品质令我十分敬仰。他宽厚仁慈,决策谨慎,一旦决定就恪守不移,对虚名浮利毫不动心;他勤于政务,坚忍不拔,从善如流;他始终不渝地坚持论功行赏;他治国如高超的御手,深谙张弛之道;他禁止鸡奸行为,不遗余力。

父亲意识到社交生活必须有其自身要求:他的朋友没有义务陪他吃饭或陪他出巡,每逢人家有约在先,无法陪王伴驾,他从不计较。讨论国事时,每个呈报御前的议题,必经过耐心缜密的研究。他从不仅凭粗略的第一印象草率行事。他的友情隽永持久,既不变化无常,也不滥用无度。他在任何场合都恰如其分,兴致盎然又颇具远见,能不露声色地将自己的部署逐一完善到每个细节。他对帝国的需求始终保持警惕,审慎地节省各种资源,并且忍受着由此带来的种种非议。面对神灵,他不盲目崇仰;面对同胞,他既不屈尊取悦,也不极力拉拢,而是遵循自己平和稳重的一贯风格,藐视昙花一现、新奇花哨的事物。面对命运给他带来的物质享受,他不自鸣得意,也不惴惴不安;能够得到时,他坦诚享用;不能得到时,他也不以为憾。

父亲身上断然见不到诡辩者的吹毛求疵、谄媚者的唐突无礼、迂腐者的顾虑重重;世人公认他的人格成熟而完美,阿谀奉承难动其心,自驭及驭人都得心应手。此外,父亲对真正的哲学家深怀敬意;而对其他的哲人,他尽管不做品评,但也不愿意向其讨教。在社交场合,他和蔼可亲,风度翩翩,毫无矫揉造作之感。他合情合理地关注自身的健康,从不渴望延年益寿,也不设法修饰容颜,但他却绝非漫不经心。相反,他保养得非常成功,所以很少需要医生诊治,很少服用、涂抹药物。对于他人出众的才能,父亲无论是在公开演说中还是在法律、道德或是其他领域里,总是迅速加以肯定,从不嫉妒;并尽量给以机会,使其在各自领域获得声名。父亲的所作所为皆尊崇以往的诏令,但他从不谋求民众对此的认可。同样,他厌恶烦躁不安和变化无常,固执地偏爱同样的地方,追求同样的东西。每次偏头痛剧烈发作后,他便争分夺秒地处理日常政务,不但精神焕发而且能自如地行使自己的权力。父亲的私密文件不多,仅有的几份也都是专论国事的。对展示辉煌、兴建公共建筑、发放补助等等事宜,他有着很强的判断力和约束力,总是更为关注这些措施的必要性而非由此引起的赞颂。他从不在不适当的时间沐浴,也不痴迷大兴土木。他对膳食、服装的款式和颜色、身边侍从的气质从不挑剔。父亲的服装来自他在洛里姆的乡间宅地,他的日用品大都来自出生地拉努维姆。那则关于他在塔斯丘佗对待那个心怀歉疚的管家的著名轶事,是他为人处事的写照。无礼、粗鲁或者气势汹汹都违背他的本性。他从不会像俗话说的那样,怒气冲冲到冒汗的地步。对于每一事件,他总是不慌不忙、冷静、有条不紊、果断、前后一致地加以分析和权衡。对苏格拉底的记载同样适用于父亲:他有能力允许或否定自己的一些嗜好,而大多数人或因自身的懦弱而无力拒绝,或因过于放纵而无法体验。性格刚毅到如此收放自如的程度,充分说明父亲是一个完美而不屈不挠的人,正如卧病在床的马克西姆斯所表现出的一样。



17.我要感谢神灵,赐予我慈爱的祖父母、伟大的双亲、善良的姐姐、所有的良师、战友、亲人和益友。感谢神灵,我从未与他们有过任何争执。尽管本人的脾气秉性很可能导致这类事情的发生,但幸运的是,上天没有让我经受这样的考验。我还要感谢神灵,早早终结了我祖父的情人对我的抚养职责,保全了我的无邪之心。我并不急于长大成人,而是希望从容不迫地成长。我还要感谢上苍,承蒙父皇的教诲,我戒除了一切浮华作派,懂得了宫廷生活可以没有忠诚的护卫、华丽的朝服、耀眼的灯火、栩栩如生的雕塑和其他奢华的排场。但凡国事当头,需要表率,帝王可以把生活降低到平民百姓的水准,却丝毫无损于他应有的声望和威严。神灵还赐予我这样一位兄弟 〔4〕 :一方面,他的天性长期考验着我的自律能力,另一方面他的敬爱之情又温暖着我的心。还有我的孩子们,他们个个心智健全,身体健康。承蒙神佑,使我在修辞学、诗歌和其他学科造诣有限,倘若我不太费力就能学问精进,我可能会耗费时间专研学问。神灵作证,只要一有机会,我便提升导师们的品级地位,使之达到我认为他们心中想要的程度,而不是以年资尚浅为由,让他们空等日后的升迁。感谢神灵,使我与阿波罗尼斯、卢斯提库斯、马克西姆斯相识。他们使我屡屡对自然生活的真谛产生清晰的认识。他们对我的关照、帮助和启发,使我没有理由不去追求自然生活。假如我离此目标还很远,那也怪我自己没有用心聆听神灵的启示——不,是神灵的指引——而这些我早已听上述几位哲人指点过。

感谢神灵,我的身体长期忍受这样的生活方式而没有垮掉;我从未卷入与贝妮迪克塔或西奥多托斯之流的纠葛之中,并从后续发生的事件中全身而退;虽然我和卢斯提库斯经常意见不一,但我从未把事情激化到令我懊悔的地步;母亲英年早逝之前,最后的岁月是和我一起度过的。再有,每逢我想救人于贫困或危难之时,从未有人告诉我缺乏必要的手段,而我本人也从未遇到同样需要别人伸出援手的境况。我要感谢神灵,赐予我一位贤妻,她是如此恭顺,如此充满爱心,如此纯真自然。感谢神灵不断赐予我的孩子们称职的导师,并在梦中赐我良方,特别是治好了我在卡耶塔和赫里萨患上的吐血症和眩晕病。最后,承蒙神佑,虽然我痴迷哲学,却不曾沦为某些诡辩家的猎物,也没有把精力全都用于在书桌旁啃书本,研究逻辑法则或苦读自然科学。

所有这一切美好的事情,“世人需要神灵和命运的帮助”。

写于格兰河畔的夸地。



注 释

〔1〕  指古罗马竞技场上参赛双方的战车御手身着的服饰颜色。罗马人对这种比赛的热情是无限的;获胜的选手会赢得大笔奖金,并成为公众的偶像。

〔2〕  在角斗士比赛中,色雷斯人一方的选手佩带圆形轻盾,萨姆尼人一方佩带椭圆形重盾。

〔3〕  此处不是指他的亲生父亲,而是指他的养父,古罗马皇帝安东尼·皮乌斯。

〔4〕  此处指路奇乌斯·西安尼斯·康茂德,即后来的路奇乌斯·维鲁斯。他与马可一起被皇帝安东尼·皮乌斯收养,并与他并列为共治皇帝,还娶了马可的女儿卢西拉。起初他是个勇敢而有才干的人,后来变得懦弱而自我放纵。在对波斯的战争中,他作为罗马军队的司令官,表现懒惰无能,仅凭手下将军们的才干才得以免受耻辱。他带领军队从东方回来时,也带回了瘟疫,并随后蔓延到整个帝国。维鲁斯于公元169年去世——据说,死于下毒者之手。

卷 二

1.每日伊始都要这样告诫自己:今天或许会碰到好管闲事之人、忘恩负义之人、傲慢无礼之人、背信弃义之人、心怀鬼胎之人和自私自利之人。这一切皆源于他们善恶不分。而我早已深谙善恶之本,善之高尚及恶之卑劣,也深知犯错之人的本性,他与我情同手足(并非血缘关系,而指同样被赋予理性和些许神性的同胞)。所以,这些行为伤害不了我,因为谁也不能把我牵连到堕落的事件中去。对于同胞手足,我既不会生气,也不会与之起争执,因为我们天生就该合作,犹如一个人的双手、双脚、上下眼皮或者两排牙齿。相互阻碍有违大自然的法则。激怒或者厌恶不正是一种阻碍的表现吗?



2.区区血肉之体,悠悠几缕气息,加上统领全局的理性,这就是我。(忘掉你的书本,别再渴求它们,那根本不是你的才能)作为一只脚迈进死神门槛的人,莫要留恋血肉之躯,它那黏稠的血液、骨骼、复杂的神经、静脉和动脉。也莫要留恋那几缕气息。气息是什么?无非一缕气流,连每次呼出来再吸进去的空气都不相同。唯有第三者,理性,那才是你必须全神贯注的主宰。既然你已经两鬓斑白,就不要再把理性当作奴仆,在私利的每一次驱动下,将它像木偶般扯来扯去,也不要再怒气冲冲地指责命运,抱怨今天,哀叹明天。



3.天意笼罩着整个神界。即便是无常的偶然性也在大自然的版图中占有一席之地。也就是说,天意已经将其编织进纷繁复杂的花毯之中。天意乃万物之源,且与必然性和宇宙的福祉息息相关。你本身只是那个宇宙的一部分。人性的任何组成部分,若由普遍本性授之且助人守之,皆是好的组成部分。再者,维系整个世界存在的是变化,不仅基本元素在变化,而且由这些元素构成的更为庞大的结构也在变化。明白这番道理就能知足,就能永远把它们奉为准则。忘却对书本的渴求吧。唯有如此,当大限来临时,你才不会低声抱怨,而是以优雅的风度,怀着对神灵由衷的感激迎接它。



4.好好反思一下你的那些蹉跎岁月吧,神灵是如何一再放宽你的时限,而你却没有好好利用。现在应该认识宇宙的本质,你就是宇宙的一部分;认识主宰万物的力量的本质,你就是这种力量的产物;现在应该懂得生命有时限,好好把握生命,才能增进自己的领悟,否则时光流逝,一去不还。



5.遇事要像个罗马人,更要像个男人一样,时时刻刻决心以应有的尊严和仁爱之心,独立公正地去面对。抛开其他的私心杂念吧。只要你把每个行动当作最后的机会,摒弃任性的想法,摒弃感情上对理性命令的畏缩,摒弃自我表现的欲望,摒弃自我崇拜,摒弃对自己命运的不满,你就能做到这一点。看看人只需掌控很少的东西,便可以平静虔诚地度过余生:只要他听从这为数不多的忠告,神灵就别无他求。



6.你错待了自己,我的灵魂;一切来得太快,已没有时间更改。生命只有一次;你已来日无多,却依然漠不关心自己的荣誉,将幸福寄望于他人的灵魂 〔1〕



7.外面的牵挂使你分心吗?那就给自己留一方静土,在那里可以增加对善的认识,学会克制内心的躁动。还要警惕另一种错误:有些人的愚蠢在于终日忙碌却漫无目标,不知自己的一切努力、一切想法,都为了什么。



8.一个人因对别人的想法漠不关心而遭受不幸,这种情形很难看到。然而,如果他对自己的意愿也漠不关心,那么不幸注定是对他的回报。



9.永远记住什么是普遍本性,什么是自己的本性,以及两者之间有什么样的关系。整体是那么的宏大,而部分是如此的渺小。记住,没人能阻止你按照普遍本性说话行事,因为你就是它的一部分。



10.当泰奥弗拉斯托斯比较各种罪恶的时候(至今它们都被普遍认为具有可比性),他坚信这样一个哲学真理,即欲望之罪比激情之罪更应受到惩罚。因为激情对理性的背离至少看起来带有一丝不安,让人感到一些羁绊;而欲望之罪则纯粹由满足感所驱使,意味着更多的自我放纵和女子气的倾向。况且,实践经验和哲学理论都支持这种论点,即带来满足感的罪行理应比带来痛苦的罪行应该受到更为严厉的谴责。一种情形是当事人因遭受不公而被迫失去控制,另一种情形则是在急于满足欲望的驱使下主动犯错。



11.无论是做事、说话还是思考问题,都要铭记:终止生命的权力始终掌握在自己手中。倘若真有神灵,你无须害怕离开人间,因为神灵会保佑你不受伤害。倘若神灵不存在,或者即便存在也不理人间俗事,那么在一个无神灵无天意的世界里,生活对我又有何意义?所幸的是,神灵确实存在,而且挂念人间之事。他们赐予我们力量,使我们免于陷入彻底的罪恶。纵然生活中其他方面存在罪恶,神灵也已经替我们未雨绸缪,赐予每个人避免罪恶的力量。如果一个事物不会使一个人堕落,又怎么会让他的生活堕落?普遍本性不会对这种危险熟视无睹,也不会疏于防范和补救。本性既不缺乏能力也不缺乏手段,断不可能被引入歧途,任凭好运和恶运不问青红皂白地降临到有德君子和无耻小人身上。话说回来,好人与坏人同样会遇到这样的命运:生存和死亡,荣耀和耻辱,快乐和痛苦,富有和贫穷。凡此种种,不一而足。它们既不能使我们高尚也不能使我们堕落,因此它们也就没有好坏之分。



12.我们的思维能力使我们认识到万事万物都会飞快地消失:它们的形体消失在空间里,它们的记忆消失在时间里。我们还应该认识到所有感官对象的实质,尤其那诱惑人的快乐、使人害怕的痛苦,或是那起劲地鼓动人自命不凡的声音。认清它们多么低贱卑劣,多么利欲熏心,他们的消亡多么迅速。我们应该明辨那些因真知灼见而广受赞誉的人的真正价值。我们还应该理解死亡的本质。只要我们静下心来对死亡好好思考一番,剖析一下我们对死亡的种种想象,我们很快就会明白,死亡不过是一种自然过程(只有孩童才会惧怕自然过程)。更确切地说,不只是一种过程,而且是对自然福祉作出的一种积极贡献。我们还可以认识到人与神灵是如何沟通的,这种沟通是通过身体的哪一部分来实现的,这部分消失之后又会怎样。



13.没有比这更悲哀的事情了:想搞清世间万物,就像诗人吟唱的那样,“探索地球的深处”,好奇地窥探他人灵魂深处的秘密,却丝毫不明白我们唯一要做的只是守住内心的神灵,忠贞不二地为其效力。这种效力需要保持其纯净,免受激情的诱惑,切忌漫无目标,切忌对神和世人的杰作心怀不满。这是因为,前者的杰作由于卓越不凡而值得我们崇敬,后者的杰作由于手足情分而值得我们善待。有时或许也出于同情,同情世人对善恶的无知。这种缺陷与黑白不分一样有害。



14.纵然你能活上三千年甚至三万年,你也要记住:人唯一能失去的生命就是他现在拥有的生命。除此之外,他别无可失。这就意味着最长的生命与最短的生命其实没有两样。这是因为,眼下正在经历的这一分钟同样属于每个人,但它一旦逝去便不再为我们所有。所以我们失去的仅仅限于这飞逝的瞬间。既然谁都无法失去已经逝去的或即将到来的,他怎么能被夺走他并不拥有的东西呢?因此,有两件事应当牢记在心。其一,自时间伊始,宇宙万物便以同样的方式周而复始,这种景象你看上一百年、两百年或是永远看下去,其实根本没有区别。其二,当最长寿的人和最短命的人死去时,他们的损失分毫不差。这是因为,人唯一能被剥夺的东西便是现在。既然现在才是人拥有的一切,他就不会失去他未曾拥有东西。



15.世人显然对犬儒主义者莫尼姆斯的论断持有异议。他认为:“事物取决于人们对它的看法”。然而如果我们承认他这一论断的实质也包含一定的真理,那么这一论断的价值同样是显而易见的。



16.对于肉体凡胎的人来说,他所犯的最严重的错误是使自己变成(如果能够做到的话)宇宙中的某种毒瘤或脓肿。抱怨客观环境始终是违背大自然的,因为每个人的天性都是大自然的一部分。另一个错误是,人们生气的时候常常会冷落或者恶意反对自己的同胞。第三个错误是,向快乐或痛苦屈服。第四个错误是,掩藏真情实感,虚情假意,言行不一。第五个错误是,做事随心所欲,没有明确目标,无谓浪费精力,缺乏应有思考。哪怕最微小的活动也应有目标。对于有理性的人来说,这一目标应该符合最古老的城邦和国家的法律和理性。



17.在人的一生中,他的时间只是短暂的瞬间,他的存在只是一种不停的流淌,他的感觉只是一种昏暗的微光,他的肉体只是蠕虫的一种食物,他的灵魂只是一种动荡的漩涡,他前途暗淡,名望难料。总之,他肉体的一切犹如湍急的流水,他的灵魂犹如梦境般飘渺。人生如战争,它是在陌生土地上的短暂停留,声誉之后便是遗忘。如此说来,人从何处才能找到指引方向的力量?人能而且只能从一处找到答案:哲学。成为哲人,就是要保持内心的神性纯洁无瑕、完好无损,这样他才能超越所有的快乐和痛苦,做事目标明确,不弄虚作假,不依赖他人的作为或不作为,接受每一份分配物,把它看成和自己是出自同一来源的。最后,当然也是最重要的,要欣然等待死亡的来临,那只不过是组成每一生命的各种元素的一种简单分解过程。只要这种不停的组合和再组合对元素本身无害,为何要用不信任的眼光看待生命整体的变化和分解呢?这不过是大自然的一种规律罢了;而大自然的规律是没有邪恶的。



注 释

〔1〕  意指他人赞成或是反对你的行为。

卷 三

1.岁月蹉跎,来日无多。我们要考虑的还不止这些。即使人能够延年益寿,我们也必须考虑,他的大脑是否还有能力理解事物,是否还有能力进行沉思以便理解神灵和世俗事物。人的衰老,刚开始时不会表现为呼吸器官、消化功能、或者感觉器官、脉搏跳动等诸方面的损失。但是,充分运用各项器官的能力,正确评估职责要求的能力,应付可能发生的各种问题的能力,判断是否大限将至的能力,以及娴熟运用智力进行决策的能力,都已经开始衰弱了。我们必须赶紧奋力前行。这不仅因为每过一个小时,我们便离死亡更近一步,而且因为我们的认知和理解能力在那以前就已经开始走下坡路了。

还有一个值得我们关注的事情:即便是在大自然的过程中发生的偶然事件也有其优美和迷人之处。比如,一块面包在烤箱里烤制的时候,上面会出现一些裂纹。这种瑕疵虽然不是制作中有意为之,倒也出现得合情合理,而且还能激发人的食欲。再比如,熟透了的无花果会开裂。快要掉落的橄榄有一种临近腐败的状态,但它却给果实增添一种特殊的美感。同样地,垂了头的玉米秆、狮子发怒时褶皱的皮肤、野猪嘴边滴落的白沫,凡此种种虽然本身看上去不悦目,但却是大自然其他过程的结果,为增添大自然的魅力和迷人作出了自己的贡献。



2.因此,对一个感觉敏锐、对宇宙的运行有着深邃洞察力的人来说,几乎所有事情,即便只是其他事物的副产品,似乎也都能给他带来额外的愉悦。对那些龇牙咧嘴的活生生的狮子老虎,这样的人会认为,它们像艺术家或雕塑家对它们的模仿一样值得欣赏。凭借自己审慎的鉴赏力,这样的人不仅能看到青年的诱人花朵,而且懂得欣赏老年男女的成熟魅力。并非所有人都会被此类事物所吸引,只有对大自然及其杰作真正怀有亲近感的人才会被它们所打动。



3.希波克拉底治愈了很多病患,但他自己却死于疾病。迦勒底人预言了很多人的死亡,但他们自己却没逃脱死亡的追逐。亚历山大、庞贝和凯撒大帝毁灭一座座城池,在战场上砍杀过成千上万的士兵和战马,可是大限来临时同样要撒手人寰。赫拉克利特无休止地猜测大火将耗尽宇宙,到头来他自己却身患水肿,葬身牛粪。德谟克利特死于寄生虫,苏格拉底死于另一种寄生虫。那么,这一切寓意何在?其寓意便是:你登船,远航,抵达港口,然后登岸。进入来世吗?神灵无处不在,甚至更遥远的远方也不例外。进入最终的无知觉状态吗?这样你就摆脱了痛苦和快乐的羁绊,不再受缚于这尘世的航船,这船比它的驾驭者卑鄙何止万倍。因为一方是理性和神圣,而另一方不过是肉体与腐败。



4.莫把有生之年浪费在猜测左邻右舍上,除非这种猜测能使双方有所受益。揣摩别人的行为、动机、言谈、想法和打算,总之,揣摩任何会分散你的精力,使你不能忠诚于内心神灵的事物,都意味着你丧失了做一些其他事情的机会。所以,务必要让你的思绪远离那些无聊而杂乱无章的猜想,尤其是那种多管闲事不够厚道的想法。人应该习惯于这样一种思维:当突然被问到“你此刻在想什么”的时候,能坦然而毫不犹豫地给出答案。由此可以证明他的思想单纯而友善,与社会人的身份相称,对感官刺激、妒忌、羡慕、猜疑,或其他自己羞于承认的情感不感兴趣。这种决心现在就想攀上高峰的人,堪当神灵的祭祀和使者,因为他把内心的力量发挥到极致:享乐不辱其名,痛苦不伤其身,羞辱不移其情,邪恶不动其心。他参加的是所有比赛中最伟大的一项,即为摆脱情欲的操控而抗争。他的秉性纯粹正直,全心全意地迎接命运的降临。除非为了公众利益,很少去揣测别人的说法、做法和想法。他严格控制自己的活动,只关心自己的事情,专注宇宙大网中自己这根细丝,确保自己的行为是高尚的,坚信发生在自己身上的一切必定是最好的,因为指导他自己的命运之神必定按照更高层的指令行事。他不会忘记所有理性生物共有的手足之情,也不会忘记关怀每一个人正是人性的一种体现。他懂得不应该顺从世俗的观念,而是要追随那些被公认为与大自然和谐相处的人们的观点。对于那些生活不太有序的人,他时常提醒自己,要记住他们在家和在外、白天和晚上所展现的不同品质,要记住他们经常交往的社会阶层。这些人对自己评价都不高,那么就更不值得他来赞许。



5.在行动上,你应积极主动,手脚麻利,但也要考虑公众的利益;应深思熟虑,但不要优柔寡断。在感情上,你不要自命不凡地过于精雕细刻,不要喋喋不休,也不要多管闲事。在内心神灵的主宰下,你应该是一个充满阳刚之气、成熟稳健的人,一个政治家,一个罗马人,一个执政官。你应该是一个坚守立场,像一名在人生战场上待命撤退的战士,随时欢迎接替者。你应该是一个功劳无需自我肯定,也无需他人评说的人。这就是内心快乐的秘密,不依赖外来帮助,也不祈求他人恩赐安宁的秘密。我们必须自己挺立于天地之间,而不是被别人扶植起来。



6.假如世俗生活能给你比正义、真理、自制和勇气更美好的东西(也就是说,在你的行为符合理性法则时能心境安宁,在无法控制的命运从天而降时能心境安宁),或者假如你能认清更加崇高的理想,那么你就全心全意地奔向它,并且为发现了自己的追求而欢欣鼓舞。然而,如果在你看来没有比你内心的神灵更美好的东西可以指引你的每一次冲动、权衡你的每一个想法、弃绝(苏格拉底语)肉体对你的诱惑、公开宣布你效忠神灵、体恤民众,如果你通过比较发现其他一切都很卑微渺小,那么你就不应允许自己从事任何相反的追求。因为你一旦犹豫不决、改变方向,就再也不能坚守自己选择的理想了。其他任何雄心壮志都不能与理智和公民义务所具有的美好相提并论。哪怕是全世界的掌声、权力、财富和快乐,也无法与之相比。这些东西,也许暂时看来并非不合时宜,但它们很快就能占领上风、使人失去平衡。要我说,你干脆就选择最高的理想,并坚守下去。你会说:“可是,对我最有利的便是我的最高理想。”假如你作为一个具有理性的人,它对你最有利,那就坚守下去。但如果你仅仅作为一个动物,它对你也最有利,那就不妨直说,并谦卑地维持你的观点,只要你能确保你已经正确地探究过这个问题。



7.永远不要看重靠违背诺言、丧失自尊、仇恨、猜疑、诅咒他人、伪善等手段而获得的好处,也不要试图得到人家掩藏起来的东西。如果人优先考虑的是自己的思想、内心的神灵和对神灵的供奉,他就不会装腔作势,满腹牢骚,既不渴望独处也不追求热闹。最大的好处在于,他的生命将摆脱不停地追逐和躲避。他不在意自己的灵魂在尘世的躯体中存在的时间是长是短。此刻若是大限来临,他会从容向前,一如完成其他事情那样,自尊而有条不紊。生命中,他别无牵挂,只专注于不让自己的思想误入歧途,不要走上与聪慧的社会人水火不容的道路。



8.受过训诫和净化的心灵,不会有腐败的污渍、不洁的污点、生脓的痛疮。死亡不会在中途匆匆带走他的生命,如同演员未及演出结束便中途退场。他既不是卑微的奴仆,也不是纨绔子弟。他不依靠别人,也不离群索居。他不对任何人负责,也不逃避任何责任。



9.要尊重你自己形成看法的能力。仅凭这种能力,你内心的舵手便能使你避免产生与天性不符、与理性人的天性不符的看法。这种能力能使你变得审慎细心,能使你跟同胞愉快相处,能使你与上天的意志取得一致。



10.抛开其他一切,牢记下面的真理。记住,人只活在当下,活在这飞逝的瞬间。他生命的其余时间不是已经逝去,便是还未来临。这个尘世的生命微不足道,生活在地球的一个微不足道的角落。即便是最长久的身后之名,也同样微不足道。况且,有无这种身后之名,还要仰仗一代代很快凋零、同样微不足道的人们。他们对自己都不甚了解,更何况对那个早已逝去的生命呢。



11.除上所述,另有箴言一则。当一个物体出现在你面前时,你要在脑海中对它形成清晰的印象,至少要记住它的轮廓。这样才能辨明其基本特征,并透过分散的特征看清真实的整体结构。自己弄清这一物体本身,弄清组成这一物体并由这一物体再次分解的元素。没有比这种能力更能扩展你的头脑了。它使你能系统而精确地审视生命中的每一种体验,将其分类,确定其目的、对宇宙的价值、对至尊之城(其他的城池都是至尊之城的住户)的成员——人类的价值。举例说明,比如我此刻脑海中出现的印象。它是什么?由什么构成?能存在多久?它需要我作出什么样的道德反应?是亲切、坚毅、率真、真诚、诚实、自立、还是其他品质?面对各种情况,都要学会说:这是神的意愿;或者,这是命运的安排,是复杂网络中的一根细丝,是偶然事件的巧合;又或者,这是与我同宗同种的同胞手足的所作所为,只是他对本性的要求还茫然无知。而我自己却不能承认这样的无知,所以要本着源于本性的手足之情,与他和睦相处,尽管如若不涉及是非善恶的问题,我同时还必须根据案情的是非曲直做出公正的判断。



12.在你完成一项任务之前,如果你能始终热情饱满、精力充沛、充满仁爱地严格遵循理性的原则,如果你能抛弃一切次要追求,保持内心纯洁诚实的神性(如同此刻就面对神的召唤),如果你能坚持谨守,不为任何事情停留,也不因任何事情畏缩,但求自己每一个行为都与自然契合,每次讲话能大胆地讲述实情,那么你的人生将是美好的。而且,无人能阻挡你按这一方针行事。



13.要像外科医生总是把柳叶刀和解剖刀放在手边以备不时之需那样,你要时刻铭记自己的准则以便理解有关神灵和俗世的事情。即便在最琐碎的行动中也不要忘记这二者之间的紧密联系,因为不参照神灵的事情,世俗的事情就不可能处理好,反之亦然。



14.不要再误导自己。你再也不会阅读那些笔记、罗马人和希腊人的陈年往事,或者特意为晚年收藏的精选作品。努力向前,直至尽头。抛开一切奢望。假如对自己还有一丝尊敬,就要尽可能确保自己的安全。



15.他们完全不懂下列词汇的含义:“偷窃”、“播种”、“购买”、“平静”和“明白职责”。这需要用一种与肉眼不同的眼光来理解。



16.身体、灵魂和思想:身体负责感知,灵魂是行动的源泉,而思想则制定准则。然而,被圈着的公牛也会有感知能力。野兽、同性恋者、尼禄和法拉里斯也不会仅凭冲动行事。就连那些不信奉神灵的人、背叛祖国的人、背地里干尽坏事的人,也有思想指引他们走上负责的大路。记住:其他一切都是各色人等的共有特点;君子的非凡之处则在于他以赞许的态度迎接命运织机给他编织的每一个经历,在于他拒绝玷污心中的神灵,拒绝用杂念打扰心中的神灵,在于他决意维护神灵的安宁,庄重得体地遵循神灵的教诲,承诺不说不实之词、不行不义之事。他过着简朴而自尊的幸福生活,即便因此遭到世人的怀疑,他也不对任何人心生怨恨。他仍然坚定不移地走向生命的终点,在使命驱使下纯洁安详地到达终点,完美和谐地领受命运的分派,心甘情愿地离开。

卷 四

1.若内心的主宰力量忠实于大自然,它就能根据环境提供的各种可能与机遇随时调整自己。它不要求先决条件,为达目的也愿意妥协,并能将各种阻碍自己前进的事物转化为对自己有用的东西。好比垃圾堆上燃起的篝火,原本也许会湮灭成微弱的火光,但是它的烈焰迅速蔓延至整堆垃圾,烧尽整堆垃圾,升腾起更高的火焰。



2.从事任何事业都不可随意,不可无视那些确保其能正确执行的原则。



3.人们向往归隐荒野、海滨或崇山峻岭。这实在是人们心里珍藏的梦想。不过,这样的梦想对于一个哲人来说毫无价值,因为他若愿意可随时归隐于心。人无法寻找比自己的灵魂更宁静、更不受打扰的隐退之所了。更重要的是,他自身就具备这样的条件,只需凝神静思便能立即获得内心的宁静。这种宁静不过是井然有序的内心世界的别称而已。那么经常采用这种归隐方法吧,用它来不断更新自己。制定洗练的生活准则,但要包含基本原则。时常温习它们,就可以平息一切烦恼,使你无忧无虑地回到应尽的职责中去。

说到底,你为何烦恼?因为人类的不端行为?要记住这一信条:一切理性生物天生要相互依存;容忍也是正义的一部分;人非有意为恶。想想看,无数的仇视、猜疑、憎恨、冲突都已随知情者灰飞烟灭,你就不要再烦恼了。

或许,是宇宙对你的安排让你烦心?再回忆一下两难推理法吧:“若非英明的神意,便是一团微粒。”想想看,大量的证据证明世界犹如一座城池。你是否因身体不适而感到痛苦?想想看,思想只有离开肉体时才认识到自己的力量,不再参与呼吸运动,不管是顺畅还是艰难。总之,想一下你所学到并领会的所有关于痛苦与快乐的知识。

又或许,是泡沫般虚幻的声望使你分心?记住,遗忘就在你的眼前迅速开始,记住,我们身前身后都是永恒的深渊,记住,那些喝彩的回声是多么空洞,那些自称是仰慕者的评价是多么反复无常而缺乏水准,世俗声望的传播范围又是多么狭小。整个地球不过是一个小点,而我们居住的地方又是其中极小的一个角落。那么能有多少人会赞美你?而他们又是怎样的人呢?

记住,归隐到自己内心那一方小天地吧。最要紧的是,决不要抗争或较劲,而要做自己的主人,像个男子汉,像个人,像个公民,像个凡人那样看待生活。真理如云,不如经常思考以下两条:其一,事物永远不可能触及灵魂,只是迟钝地站在灵魂之外,所以唯有自己无端的猜想才会引起灵魂的不安;其二,所有看得见的事物时刻都在变化,并终将不复存在。想想自己身上发生的无数变化。整个宇宙都在变,生活本身即是你对它的看法 〔1〕



4.如果人类普遍具有思考能力,那么也就普遍具有理性,由此我们也就成为理性生物。因此可以断定,告诫我们“应该做什么”或“不应该做什么”的理性也同样具有普遍性。这就是一种普世法。反过来,它说明我们都是同胞,享有共同的公民资格,而这个世界就是一个城市。世上还有其他的公民资格可供全人类分享吗?正是从这样的世界体中产生了思维、理智、法律本身。要不然,还能从何而来?我身上土性的部分来自土地,水性的部分来自另一种元素,我的呼吸来自一处,而炙热的火性则来自另一处(因为无中不能生有,也不能归于无),所以说思想必定也有来源。



5.死亡,如同出生,是大自然的一个秘密。同样的元素组合在一起,再分解开来,全然没有值得羞愧的地方。对于具有理性思维的生物来说,这既不反常,也没有违背创造它们的计划。



6.什么样的人行什么样的事,这是必然的。如果希望世事不是这样,就如同希望无花果树不生浆一样不现实。无论如何都要记住:你和他很快就会去世,而你们的大名也将很快被人遗忘。



7.抛开“我被冤屈”的念头,冤屈感自然也会随之消失。拒绝受伤的感觉,伤痛也会消失。



8.不能腐蚀人的,也就不会腐蚀他的生活,不会对他造成任何损害,无论是外在的还是内在的。



9.集体权宜的法则促成了这种情况的发生。



10.任何事情的发生都有其合理性。仔细观察一下,就会发现此话千真万确。一桩桩事件之间,不仅存在先后顺序,还存在一种公道合理的秩序,好像有一只手让它们各就各位似的。那么,你不妨继续观察下去,让善意伴随着你的每一个举动(此处是指善意的本意)。无论你做什么,都要注意这一点。



11.莫要仿效骄傲自大者的看法,也不要让他们的看法支配你的思想,而要按照事物的本来面貌观察事物。



12.时刻谨记以下两点:其一,只听从理性(我们的主宰和立法者)的建议,做有利于公共福祉的事情;其二,假如有人当场纠正你并能说服你判断有误,你就应该重新考虑自己的决定。但是这种服劝的出发点,必须是为了正义、公益,或其他类似的利益。这必须是唯一的考虑,而不是为了追求享受或声望。



13.“你有理性吗?”“有。”那为什么不用它呢?如果理性发挥了作用,夫复何求?



14.你生来便是宇宙的一部分。你将消失在赐予你生命的宇宙中。更准确地说,你将再次化入宇宙的创造性理性之中。



15.许多香灰落在同一个祭坛上:有的早些,有的晚些,但这没有任何区别。



16.你只要回归到本派的教义中,回归到对理性的崇敬中,用不了一周时间,那些现在将你归入野兽和猴子之流的人们便会尊你为神。



17.活着的时候不要以为还有千年可活。死亡近在咫尺。趁着还有时间和权力,好自为之吧。



18.一个人只要不理会邻居说什么、做什么、想什么,只关心自己的行为是否公正虔诚,他就必然拥有充裕的时间和安逸的心境。有德之人从不窥探别人的污点,只会坚定不移地朝自己的目标努力。



19.为身后之名而血脉喷张的人没有思考过下面的事实:所有记得他的人不久都会离开人世,随着时间的推移,他们的后代也会离去,一番番的燃烧和湮灭之后,记忆的火光最终也将熄灭。何况,即便那些人都能长生不死,他们的记忆也不会消亡,这对你又有何意义?对坟墓中的你显然毫无意义。即便在你的有生之年,赞美之词,除非能对某些次要目的有所帮助,可对你又有何用?所以,如果你一心想知道未来人们对你的评价,必定会不合时宜地拒绝现在大自然所赋予你的一切。



20.但凡称得上美的事物,其美皆源于自身,除此别无他求。赞美却不是这样,它既不能使事物变得更坏,也不能使其变得更好。即便是极为平常的美,比如自然物体或艺术作品,也是如此。真正的美还需要别的条件吗?当然不需要。有法律、真理、仁慈或谦虚,就已足够。这些美德会因赞美而增色,或因谴责而受损吗?绿宝石会因为没人欣赏而有损其美吗?黄金、象牙、紫色呢?七弦竖琴或匕首呢?玫瑰花蕾或小树苗呢?



21.如果人死后灵魂真能不灭,那么自时间伊始,我们头上的天空如何容纳这么多的灵魂?而地面又如何容纳自古至今这么多肉体?肉体入土之后很快会腐烂变质,为后面的肉体腾出了空间。同样地,升入空中的灵魂停留一段时间之后也会产生变化,弥漫开来,继而转化成火,重回宇宙的创造性原则之中。这样,腾出的空间便可以接纳其他灵魂。这便是信奉灵魂不灭者的答案。况且,我们不能光计算人类肉体的数量,还要包括每天被我们和其他动物吞噬的所有生物。以这种方式消亡,从某种意义上说是被葬在动物或人的体内,并为它们提供营养。如果这样的话,这个数量该有多么庞大!不过,随着它们被融入血液,再转变成空气或火,这样,所需的空间就都具备了。

我们又是如何发现这些真相的呢?就是通过区别问题和根源。



22.绝不要让自己过分激动。一旦冲动发生,首先要保证它符合正义的要求。一旦形成某种看法,首先要使自己确信其必然性。



23.世界啊,我始终亦步亦趋追随您伟大的和谐。只要对您合乎时宜,对我早晚皆可。大自然啊,您四季生产的作物便是我的收获。万物皆源于此,长于此,归于此。当诗人高喊:“伟大的刻克洛普斯之城!”时,但愿我们不必一起高呼“伟大的神灵之城!”



24.圣人说:“假如懂得知足,就该少些作为。”也许这样更好:只做非做不可的事情,只做理性要求社会人必须做的事情,只做理性要求的事情。这样,你会产生一种做事少而精的满足感。其实,我们的言行大都可有可无,省去一些不仅节约了时间还省去了麻烦。因此,人每走一步都应自问:“这件事非做不可吗?”而且,我们不仅要抑制无聊的行为,还要抑制无聊的想法,这样不必要的事情就不会发生。



25.考验一下自己是否能像有德之人那样生活。他们满足于宇宙对他的安排,只求为人公正,处事仁慈。



26.“这一切 〔2〕 你都看到了吗?”现在这样想想:你的角色应该是性情安详、为人质朴单纯。是别人做错了吗?错误在于他自身。你遇到什么事情了吗?很好,这就是普遍的命运对你的安排,这种安排早在时间伊始便已注定。它和发生的其他事情一样,都是特意为你编织的命运之网的一部分。总之,生命短暂,遵从理智和正义的指引,珍惜如梭的时光吧。放松心情,但要有节制。



27.宇宙要么井然有序,要么是杂乱无章、随意拼凑起来、勉强成型的一团混沌。不过,你身上是否也存在着某种有序,同时更大的整体看来却又无序?自然的各个部分尽管千差万别,可是它们之间是否又感同一体呢?



28.一颗黑暗的心!一颗任性妇人之心;一颗残暴之心,一颗野兽之心;幼稚、愚蠢而虚伪;一颗唯利是图者之心,一颗暴君之心。



29.如果不了解宇宙中存在什么的人就是不懂得宇宙的话,那么不了解宇宙中发生什么的人同样也是不懂得宇宙。这样的人是一个从理性王国自我放逐的流亡者,是一个削弱自己洞察力的睁眼瞎,是一个自身没有生活来源、依附他人生活的贫民。当他拒绝接受自己的命运(毕竟,命运也是产生了他自己的大自然的一种产物),从而割裂、割断其与我们共同的自然法则的联系时,他便是世界的一个累赘。当他将自己的灵魂与全体理性生物共有的灵魂割断,任其漂泊时,他便是从社会截去的一段残肢。



30.一位哲人无衫,另一位无书,还有一位衣衫仅遮住一半身体,他说:“虽无面包果腹,我依然坚守理性。”对我来说,虽然学无所成,但依然坚持不辍。



31.要热爱自己所学的专业,从中汲取养分。像全心侍奉神灵的人那样度过余生,从此既不做他人的主人,也不为他人的奴仆。



32.让我们回想一下维斯帕先统治的时期。你看到了什么?男人和女人忙于婚配、抚养子女、患病、垂死、争斗、吃喝、讨价还价、耕作、阿谀奉承、自吹自擂、相互妒忌、筹划诡计、诅咒谩骂、怨天怨命、谈情说爱、积存钱财、觊觎王位和尊严。如此这般的生活,今天踪影全无。再看看图拉真统治的时期。那样的生活,今天同样不复存在。同样再看看其他时代和人物的记录,你会看到他们每一个人经过短暂的奋斗,都已逝去并化作各种元素。特别是,回想一下那些你所熟知的人。他们不是满足于坚定履行上天赋与的职责,而是追慕虚荣。在这种情况下,我们有必要提醒自己,对任何事物价值的追求,都取决于事物本身的实际价值。所以说,想要避免受挫,就切忌过分沉溺于那些并不最为紧要的事情。



33.曾经风行一时的用语如今已经废弃不用。曾经家喻户晓的名字如今也成了陈年古语。卡米卢斯、恺撒、沃勒塞斯、利奥拉图斯,还有更近一些的斯奇比奥和加图、奥古斯都,甚至哈德良和安东尼纳斯。一切都已成为历史传说,不久便会被人忘却。即便是那些生如烈焰的人物也会如此。至于其他人,他们刚刚吐出最后一口气便如同荷马所说的那样:“同样消失在世人眼中,成了传闻。”不朽的英名究竟是什么呢?不过是空洞虚无的东西。那么,我们应该追求什么呢?那就是而且只能是:公正的思想、无私的行为、真实的语言,把世间发生的一切看作命中注定,预料之中,来自同一源泉的性情。



34.心甘情愿地把自己交给命运之神克洛索,任凭她用手中的材料纺出你的生命之线。



35.我们都是同一天的生物,纪念者和被纪念者都一样。



36.仔细观察世间万物如何源源不断地产生于变化之中。教会自己认识到大自然最崇高的幸福蕴藏于事物的变化之中,变化的事物依其本性又形成新的事物。从某种意义上说,世间万物都是孕育新事物的种子。如果认为只有种在土地里或子宫里的才是种子,这样的人成不了哲学家。



37.你将不久于人世,但却依旧不能专心致志,不能摆脱烦躁,尚未对外界危害漠不关心,尚未对所有人怀有仁慈之心,也不相信秉公做事才是唯一的智慧。



38.悉心观察指引着智者行为的力量,看看他们在避免什么,又在追求什么。



39.对你而言,邪恶并非来自他人的心灵,也非源于你自己身体构成的任何变化。那么,它从何而来?它来自你心中对邪恶的评估。拒绝评估,便会万事大吉。让这种评估者的声音保持沉默吧,哪怕紧靠它的可怜的躯体被划破或灼烧,化脓或坏死。不要让这种声音来评价善恶,无论对好人还是坏人都一样。这是因为,无论人们是否遵从大自然的法则,只要事情公正地发生在他们身上,就既不会阻碍也不会促进大自然的意图。



40.要始终把宇宙看作一个拥有单一物质和单一灵魂的鲜活有机体。好好观察一切事物是如何服从于这一整体特有的洞察力,如何在这一整体的驱使下运动,如何在发生的每一事件的因果关系中发挥作用的。既要注意线束的错综,又要注意网络的复杂。



41.“一个受着肉体拖累的可怜的灵魂。”埃皮克提图这样称呼你。



42.处在改变过程中不是件坏事。同样,成为改变的结果也是件好事。



43.时间是一条河流,不可抗拒地带走一切神的创造。一个事物刚一出现便匆匆而逝,另一个事物接踵而至,但照样要被时间的河水卷走。



44.一切事都是平常而令人期待的,如同春天的玫瑰和夏天的果实。疾病、死亡、诽谤、阴谋,以及其他给蠢人带来快乐和烦恼的事情,也是如此。



45.后面的事情总与前面的事情紧密相关。它们并非是存在先后顺序的一连串孤立事件,而是密切联系着的。而且,正如已经存在的事物都彼此和谐地联系在一起一样,将要发生的事情也表现出同样惊人的相互关联,而绝非一种单纯的交接过程。



46.要永远铭记赫拉克利特的名言:“土之死乃水之生;水之死乃气之生;气复生火;如此循环往复。”还要记住他的话:“徒步旅行者却忘记了脚下的路通往何方”,“人总是跟自己最亲近的伙伴过不去”(主宰宇宙的理性),“尽管天天碰到,却依然当作陌生的事物。”“我们说话做事不能像睡着的人那样”(因为睡着的人的确会想象自己是在说话做事),也不能“像孩童模仿家长说话一样”。也就是说,不能盲目地信赖传统的格言。



47.假如一位神对你说:“明天,或者最迟后天,你将离开人世。”除非你是最绝望无助的人,否则你不会特别介意这一天究竟是后天还是明天。这是因为,这二者又有什么区别呢?同理,也不要认为多年以后来临还是明天来临有多大区别。



48.要时常记起那些已故的医生,他们曾经为患者的病痛绞尽脑汁。要时常记起那些占星家,他们曾经十分庄严地预言人的命运。要时常记起那些哲学家,他们曾经不厌其烦地论述着死亡和不朽的命题。要时常记起那些杰出的指挥官,他们曾经杀敌无数。要时常记起那些暴君,他们曾经极其狂傲地操纵着生死予夺大权,俨然把自己当作永生的神灵。还要时常记起已经毁灭的赫利凯、庞贝、赫库兰尼姆和不计其数的其他城市。然后,再逐一回忆自己熟悉的人,他们是如何在短短的时间内一个埋葬了另一个,却又被第三个埋葬的。总之,看看尘世的生活是如此的短暂而琐碎:昨日还是一滴精液,明日就化作一撮香灰。所以,听从自然的召唤度过飞逝的尘世时光,然后心甘情愿地长眠于地下,如同一颗橄榄恰逢其时地落在地上,给养育它的大地带去祝福,对赐予它生命的树干充满感激。



49.要像那被海浪一次次拍打的山岬:屹立在水中,直至四周喧嚣的波浪重新恢复平静。“我是如此不幸,这样的事情竟然降临到我头上!”绝不要这样想。你不妨说:“我多么幸运,事情过去了,我却没感受到痛苦,现在没有使我动摇,未来也不会使我灰心。”事情可能发生在任何人身上,可并非人人都能摆脱痛苦。因此,为何要把它看成是一种不幸,而不是一种幸运呢?任何事情只要不违背人的本性,又怎么能称为不幸?只要没有违背本性的意愿,又怎么能说违背了人的本性?好了,你已经了解本性的意愿。难道你所经历的事情会阻碍你实现人性的追求:成为一个正直、宽宏大量、有节制、明智、审慎、诚实、自尊而独立的人?因此,以后每当有事会使你感到痛苦时,记住这样一条准则:不要说“这是一种不幸”,而要说“经受住它的考验是一种幸运”。



50.想想那些贪生怕死的人吧,这是除了哲学之外,能帮助人漠视死亡的一种有效方法。比起英年早逝的人,这些人又得到了什么好处呢?这些人,无一例外都于某时某地被掩埋入土。克迪斯亚卢斯、费比乌斯、尤利安、雷比达等等,他们见证了无数人走向坟墓,到头来自己也未能幸免。他们能拖延的时间毕竟不长,在这种情况下苟延残喘,既连累了众人,又弄惨了自己的身体。所以,要漠视死亡,看看身后时间的深渊,永无尽头的将来。在这种情况下,长寿的内斯特和仅活三天的婴儿又有什么不同呢?



51.始终要走近路,近路是本性之路,以追求言行的完全公正为目标。这种目标能使你避免焦虑和冲突,远离妥协和诡计。



注 释

〔1〕  生活本身就是你认为的那样。哈姆雷特(第二幕,第二场)说:“世上的事情本无善恶之分,都是世人的看法把它们这样区分开来。”在此,马可用两个希腊词更简洁地表达出这种思想,字面意思为“生活(即)观念”。

〔2〕  指最近突然遇到的令人不愉快的事情。

卷 五

1.清晨看见第一缕阳光,尽管不愿意起床,心里也要这样想:“我要起来去工作。”去做天生应该做的事情,这是我降临人世的目的,难道应该有怨言吗?难道我的人生目的就是暖洋洋地盖着毯子睡觉吗?“可是这样多么舒适!”那么,你生来就是为了舒服,而不是为了工作,为了奋斗?看看那些植物、麻雀、蚂蚁、蜘蛛和蜜蜂吧。它们都在忙于工作,都在为紧凑的世界秩序贡献自己的力量。可你却要拒绝人的分内工作,不立刻听从大自然的召唤吗?“可人也得休息呀。”这我同意,可是本性规定休息要有限度,正如吃饭、喝水要有限度一样。而你已经越过了这些限度,远远超出足够的范畴。另一方面,没有行动,就不可能有收获。

你并不真心爱自己。如果你真爱自己,你一定会热爱自己的本性,热爱本性的意愿。爱岗敬业的手艺人愿意穷其精力埋头苦干,达到不洗脸、不吃饭的程度。而你对自己的本性缺乏尊重,远不如雕刻者尊重其雕刻,舞蹈者尊重其舞蹈,守财奴珍视其财宝,或者虚荣者爱慕其荣耀。那些人全心全意地投入,为追求更高的境界而甘愿废寝忘食。为社会服务在你眼中就这么没有价值,不值得为之奉献吗?



2.啊,能摆脱并遗忘所有让人烦心的念头,转瞬之间得到彻底的安宁,这是多么让人欣慰的事情呀!



3.保留你依本性而言、依本性而行的权利,哪怕可能招致批评和非议也不要放弃它们。只要有善行可做、有良言可说,就绝不放弃这样的权利。批评你的人自有他们的道理和动机。你的注意力不能被他们分散,要始终直视前方,按自己的本性和普遍本性行事(这两者其实是一回事)。



4.我遵循本性之路前行,直至倒地安息。我吐出最后一口我每天吸入的气息,然后倒在这片土地上。这片土地,使我父亲获得了种子,使我母亲获得了血液,使我乳母获得了哺育我的乳汁。这片土地,年复一年地提供了我一日三餐,虽被如此滥用,却依然忍受着我的践踏。



5.你绝不可能以机敏著称。那就认命吧。但你还可以拥有很多别的优点,你总不能说:“我对这些不感兴趣。”好好培养那些你完全能够做到的美德,比如:真诚和尊严,勤劳和清醒。不要牢骚满腹。要生活节俭,为人体贴、周到而又坦率。要言辞温和,举止威严。看看,眼前你就可以拥有这么多优点。你可不能以天生无能或天资笨拙为借口,选择在那不太高尚的层面继续徘徊。难道缺少先天条件,你就一定要牢骚满腹、极度吝啬、溜须拍马,一定要抱怨身体欠佳,一定要卑躬屈膝、乱夸海口、喜怒无常?肯定不是。你早就应该改正这些缺点了,这样除了理解力有些迟钝之外,你在其他方面就无可指责了。即使理解力迟钝这一点,也可以通过练习得到纠正,只要你不再轻视它,或者以此为乐。



6.有这样一种人,他们帮了你一点忙,便迫不及待地向你邀功请赏。还有一种人,虽然不像前者那样过分,但是暗地里认为你欠他的人情,并且把自己的功劳记得清清楚楚。然而,还有一种人,我们不妨说,他们完全意识不到自己的贡献,就像那长葡萄的藤蔓,理所应当地结出了果实,却不求更多的感谢,就像跑完比赛的赛马、追逐到猎物的猎犬、酿制了蜂蜜的蜜蜂一样。同样,这种人做了好事也不会大肆宣扬,而是接着去做下一件,如同葡萄藤来年夏季会继续结出硕果一样。

“照你这么说,我们都应该这样默默无闻地做事情吗?”正是。而且,我们要有意识地这么要求自己。俗话说得好:“意识到自己的行为具有社会性正是一个社会人的标志。”“那么,希望社会能意识到自己的行为,这也是社会人的标志吗?”没错。但是你误解了这句箴言的意思,从而把自己等同于我前面描述的那些人,他们同样也被一种似是而非的理性误导了。要正确理解这句箴言的真正含义,这样你就再也不用担心它会诱使你忘记自己的社会责任了。



7.雅典人这样祈祷:“下雨吧,下雨吧。尊贵的宙斯,请把雨水降临到雅典的田地和平原上吧。”要么就根本不要祈祷,要祈祷就应该这样简洁明了。



8.正如我们所说:“医神艾斯库雷普开过骑马锻炼、冷水浴或赤脚走路这样的处方。”同样地,普遍本性也开出了疾病、断肢、损伤或其他残疾的处方。前者是为了患者的健康而采用一种特定的治疗方法,后者则是为了我们的命运而发生的特定事件。实际上,我们不妨说是“遇到了”不幸,如同石匠们说,砌成石墙或金字塔的方形石块是“遇到了”彼此。这种相互整合是宇宙的普遍规律。无数的个体组成一个大写的个体,这就是世界。无数的原因组成一个大写的原因,这就是命运。即使普通百姓也懂得这些,他们会说:“事情落到了他的身上。”事情的确是落到了他的身上。也就是说,这是专门为他开的处方。那么,让我们接受诸如此类的事情吧,就像我们接受医神的处方那样。良药通常苦口,但是为了健康,我们也会欣然吞下。同样,我们也应该把执行和完成大自然的命令看作是为了身体的健康:即便降临的命运再苦涩,为了宇宙的健康,为了宙斯神的福祉和善举,我们依然要高高兴兴地承受。若非为了整个世界的福祉,神绝不会将此降临给个人。大自然不会让其治下的臣民遭受任何灾难,除非是专门为了使其受益。所以,基于下面两个原因,你应该心甘情愿地接受自己身上发生的事情。原因之一,你身上发生的事情是特别为你定制的,与你息息相关,是纷繁复杂的原始因果关系中的一部分。原因之二,每一个人的命运都关系到宇宙主宰者的兴衰、成败,甚至存亡。在原因或其他元素的链接中,任何一环脱落,哪怕是很微小的一环,都会伤及整体。每当你感到不满时,你都是在你有限的能力范围内,对整体造成这样的损害和断裂。



9.如果戒律有时得不到施行,不要痛苦,不要沮丧,更不要绝望。每次失败后再重新开始。只要在多数情况下自己总体上具有男人应有的风范,就应该心怀感激。但要真心热爱你所回归的戒律:对待自己的人生哲学不能像小学生对待老师那样,而是要像眼痛病人对待蛋黄涂剂和海绵,或者别的病人对待膏药和洗剂一样。唯有如此,你对理性的遵从才能成为私人的慰籍,而不会沦为公开的做秀。要记住,哲学只以你自己本性的意志为意志,而你却把其他有违本性的东西当作自己的意志。“没错,可是还有什么事情能让人倍感愉悦呢?”以愉悦为诱因不就是为了迷惑你吗?好好想想吧:难道高尚的灵魂不更令人愉悦吗?难道公正、朴素、仁慈和虔诚不让人更加甚至倍感愉悦吗?当你进行严密而流畅的推理和认知时,还有什么比这样的智力活动更令人愉快的?



10.真理总是隐藏在朦胧晦涩之中,以至许多声名显赫的哲学家 〔1〕 都曾断言无法探知。甚至斯多葛派哲学家都承认获得真理困难重重,承认我们思考得出的结论都有可能出错。确实,哪里有绝对不出错的人呢?或许,我们不妨把目光转向更为物质的事物:看看它们是多么瞬息万变,又毫无用处,因为每个肆意挥霍的人、放荡的妇人、犯罪的人都可能得到它们。再看看你同伴的性格:连他们之中脾气最随和的人都让你难以忍受,更别说容忍自己有多困难了。因此,在这种昏暗的泥潭之中,在存在与时间之河不停歇地流淌之中,在强加的和经受的变化之中,我想不出有什么东西更值得高度珍视和郑重追寻。没有。我们所要做的便是勉励自己静候自然消亡,同时不要因其姗姗来迟而心烦意乱,而要从以下两方面寻求安慰:其一,我们从未发生过违背本性的事情;其二,避免违背心中神灵的力量就掌握在我自己手中,因为世上没人能强迫我进行这种违背。



11.我该如何运用灵魂的力量呢?每走一步都要这样自省,然后自问:“灵魂与我身上所谓的主宰部分如何相处呢?此时此刻,我拥有的是谁的灵魂呢?孩童的,少年的,妇人的,暴君的,不会说话的公牛的,还是野兽的?”



12.可以这样 〔2〕 来验证时下流行的“财产”概念。如果一个人把财产界定为审慎、节制、正义和坚韧,那么,他就不会留意那种关于“许多财产”的老掉牙的笑话,因为这种笑话没有一点意义。反过来,假如他对财产的构成也持有庸俗的看法,他就必然欣赏说笑者的诙谐,毫不费力能领会其中的妙处。实际上,大部分人都抱有这样的价值观,不会拒绝听这样的俏皮话,听了也不生气。如果把财产只理解为财富或其他奢侈、讲排场的东西,我们的确应该承认这则笑话是一种恰当而机智的见解。因此,现在考验就来了:问问自己,假如我们内心对事物的描绘赋予了“财产多到使其拥有者无处容身的地步”这一嘲讽现实的意义,那么我们是否还应该看重它们,并将其视为“财产”。



13.我是由一种形式元素和一种物质构成的。两者皆不能消逝转化为无,正如它们都不是从无而来一样。所以说,我的各个组成部分有朝一日都会转变为宇宙中其他的部分,其他部分再依次转变为另外的部分,如此循环直至无穷。我本身也是通过同样的过程来到人世,我的父母也是如此,往前再循环到无穷。(纵然世界本是由无穷的循环所主宰,无穷一词本身也会消失。)



14.理性,还有推理,在属性和运作方法上都具有自给自足的功能。它们来源于自身,自己产生原始的动力,并且径直奔向自己选定的目标。由此产生的行为被称为“一往无前”,是说其运行的路线不偏离正道。



15.除非事物从属于人,否则就不能合理地称其为人所有。它们不需要人,因为人的本性既不能保障它们,也不会因它们而变得完美。所以,它们不可能代表人生的首要目标,甚至也算不上实现这一目标的“有效”途径。况且,假如人的自然传承中包括这样的事物,就不可能同时又蔑视和抛弃它们,那种没有它们照样能成功的能力也就没有值得赞扬的理由。倘若它们的确很好,不能完全拥有它们也不见得就不好。实际上,类似的事物,人类失去得越多,获得的美德就越多。



16.你的心灵会和你平时的思想一样,因为思想会将灵魂染上自己的颜色。那么,沉浸在这样的思考中吧,比如:如果存在生活,就一定存在正确的生活;如果存在宫廷生活,即使在宫廷中也一定存在正确的生活。或者这样想:每一事物产生的目的决定它的发展;它的发展指向它的最终状态,最终状态又暗示着它的主要优点。所以说,理性人的首要优点,是与邻里友好相处。友好相处是产生我们的目的,这在很久以前就已经明确了。(低等事物为高等事物而存在,而高等事物为彼此而存在,这难道不是显而易见的吗?有生命的比无生命的高级,而理性生物则更高一等。)



17.追求得不到的东西是愚蠢,然而愚蠢的人却无法不去进行这样的追求。



18.如果本性没有使某人具备承受能力,事情就不会发生在他的身上。左邻右舍的经历与你的经历毫无差别。不过,抑或他还不完全明白所发生的事情,抑或他更渴望展示自己的勇气,他坚定地矗立着,无所畏惧。真是羞愧,无知和虚荣竟然比智慧更强大!



19.外在的事物丝毫不能触及人的灵魂。它们不知晓通往灵魂的路径,也没有能力动摇或者改变灵魂。只有灵魂自身的力量才能使其动摇或改变。灵魂有自己的判断标准,并用这些标准检验着自己的每一次经历。



20.一方面,仁爱对我影响很深,使我注定要善待、宽容我的同胞。另一方面,就他人对我正当行为的束缚而言,仁爱就像太阳、风,或野兽一样对我漠不关心。的确,别人也许能束缚我的某些行为,但无法阻止我的意志和性情,因为意志和性情能使我有所保留而始终保护自己,使自己适应各种情况。心灵能克服一切限制行动的障碍,将其转化成实现主要目标的促进力量。这样一来,任何障碍都能变成辅助力量,路上遇到的层层关卡也会变成帮助前进的手段。



21.在宇宙中,崇敬是至高无上的。它使其他一切都处于从属地位,它将自己置于其他一切之上。同样,在你的内心,崇敬也是至高无上的。在你内心,它与前者一样,使其他一切都处于从属地位,它指引着你的人生。



22.对城市无害的东西也不会有害于市民。每当假设有危害时,要遵循这样的原则:“如果城市不会受到危害,我也一样不会受到危害。”然而,一旦城市真的受到危害,决不要迁怒于危害者,而要找出他的看法错在哪里。



23.要时常想想,现存的一切事物和将要出现的一切事物,从我们眼前经过和消逝的速度是多么迅速。存在这条大河,一直奔流不息,它的行为一直在变化,它的缘起缘落无穷地在转化,几乎没有一个事物静止不动。同时,无穷也会随时出现在过去和未来:一切都将消逝于这一深渊之中。如此说来,一个人如果总是愤忿、发火或烦躁,似乎他的苦恼时间会持续很久,那么他就是愚不可及。



24.想想世间万物的存在,自己只是其中微乎其微的一部分;想想古往今来的时间长河,属于自己的又是那么转瞬即逝的一段;想想恢宏的天命,自己的命运只是其中微不足道的一部分。



25.有人错待我吗?让他自己留意吧,他清楚自己的脾气和所作所为。而我,只是接受普遍本性要我接受的东西,做自己本性要我做的事情。



26.无论是痛苦还是快乐,都不要让人的情感影响至高无上的、独立自主的灵魂。务必不要让灵魂受它们的影响。心灵必须固守自己的领地,使情感不能超越应有的范围。万一感情(通过任何完整的生物都怀有的同情)弥漫到心灵,也不必试图压抑肉体的感受。只是,主宰心灵的理智不要妄加猜测情感的善与恶。



27.与神灵一起生活。与神灵一起生活,意味着要时刻向神灵展示自己的灵魂:满足于神灵的赐予,全心全意实现那个内心之灵的意愿,那个自身微粒的意愿。那微粒就是心灵与理性,为宙斯所赐,供每个人掌管和引导自己的行动。



28.有腋臭和口臭的人让你感到恼火吗?你这样有何益处?但凡长了这样的口腔和腋窝,就必然会发出这种气味。“不论怎样,这人毕竟还有理性,他只要想想就完全会明白自己遭嫌的原因。”那好吧。可是你自己也是有理性的人,用你的理性去影响他使之产生同样的理性,详细地为他讲解,耐心地提出劝告。如果他肯听,你就治愈他。没有必要感情用事,让那些戏子和妓女去感情用事吧。



29.如果你想今后像自己打算的那样生活在世上,这并非不可能。如果人家不允许,就放弃这生命的躯壳,只是不要感觉受了虐待。“茅屋起火则弃之。”无需小题大做。然而,如果没有类似的事情迫使我离开,我依然是自己的主人,什么都无法阻止我自己的选择,即按照本性对一个有理性的社会成员的要求去生活。



30.宇宙的心灵具有社会性。不管怎样,它创造出低等事物以服务于高等事物,并把高等事物联系在一起形成相互依赖的关系。注意观察,有些事物隶属于别的事物,其他一些事物则彼此相联,所有事物都各得其所,更为杰出的事物则和谐地结合在一起。



31.从前你是怎样侍奉神灵,对待父母、兄弟、妻子、儿女、老师、朋友、亲戚和仆役的呢?有诗云:“决不说一句刻薄话,绝不委屈一个人。”迄今为止,上述这些关系中,哪些能真正引起你对这句诗的共鸣呢?想想你所经历的一切,所忍受的一切。深思之后要明白,你的生命篇章已经结束,你的服务之旅走到了尽头。想想自己看到过的美景,藐视过的痛苦与欢乐,你所不屑的众多荣耀,以及对那些不体谅别人的人的诸多关怀。



32.没有水平、没有学问的人怎么可能困扰行家和圣人呢?什么人才真正称得上是行家和圣人呢?只有这样的人,他懂得万物的开始与结束,懂得无处不在的理性以特定的周期管理着宇宙,直至时间的终点。



33.转瞬之间,你将化为尘土或白骨,只留下一个名字,甚至连一个名字也没有留下,纵然彼时名字也不过是空洞而重复的声音而已。人们毕生倾心追求的不过是虚荣、腐朽和垃圾。人们好比打成一团的小狗,或者争吵不休的孩童,刚才还笑容满面,转眼便泪水涟涟。信任和宽容、正义和真理,都“从广袤的大地飞上了高高的奥林匹斯山”。那么,是什么让你还留在这里?感官对象变化无常、转瞬即逝,感觉器官迟钝又易被误导,不幸的灵魂不过是血液里升腾起的蒸汽 〔3〕 ,在这种情形下,举世的赞誉不过是徒有虚名。那该怎么办?振作起来,等待结局,不管这一结局是消亡还是转化。那么,你认为大限来临时我们需要做什么呢?只有心怀敬畏、向神灵祈福;只有善待人们;只有忍受和克制;只有记住:除了区区肉体和气息之外,一切都不属于你,不在你的掌控之中。



34.稳步前行,沿着笔直的大道去思考和行动,你今后的岁月将一帆风顺。人的灵魂和其他理性生物的灵魂一样,与神灵的灵魂有两点共同之处:它永远不会被外来力量挫败;它的善包括品格和行为的端正,以及对一切欲望的控制。



35.假如这件事不是我的过错,也不是因我的过错而起,而社会也不会因此而变得更糟,那何必再为此耗费心思?它怎么可能危害社会呢?



36.不要过于草率地相信第一印象。向需要帮助的人们伸出援助之手,只要你力所能及而他们也值得你帮助。不过,要是他们并非在道德上栽了大跟头,你就不要认为他们真正受到了伤害,因为那并非是一个善举。但在这种情况下,应该像一个老头在临终前总不断回忆他童年的拨浪鼓,尽管他知道那不过是一只拨浪鼓。 〔4〕

我的朋友,当你站在讲台上大喊大叫拉选票的时候,是否忘记了它的终极价值?“我知道,可是这些人如此重视它。”这不是证明你和他们一样愚蠢吗?

无论被流放到多么偏僻荒凉的地方,我始终都是命运的宠儿。所谓命运的宠儿,即是获得命运之神恩赐的人,这些恩赐是良好的性情,善良的动机和善意的行为。



注 释

〔1〕  此处指所谓的“怀疑论者”或皮浪学派的哲学家,该学派由艾里斯的皮洛创建。他们主张人的认识只能反映事物的表象,而不是本质,因此搁置判断才是对待事物唯一的态度。

〔2〕  这一段落出现了语义含混的词“财产”,街上的人将其理解为世俗的占有物,而不是生活中真正美好的品德。另一方面对于哲学家而言,这个词自然是指后面的含义;于是,当说到“财产多到无处容身的地步”时,他会觉得困惑。

〔3〕  按照斯多葛派的观点,构成人灵魂的圣火的微粒是有鲜血滋养的。

〔4〕  “老头”假装和小孩的想法一样,认为拨浪鼓是珍贵的宝物。马可说,我们同样应该同情他人的不幸,即便无上的智慧告诉我们,他们并非真在受罪。

卷 六

1.宇宙的物质灵活而顺从。主宰物质的理性无意为恶,因为理性本身没有恶意,不会蓄意伤害,也不会构成伤害。万事万物皆依照它的指令产生,并获得完满。



2.只要自己行为端正,就决不要在意自己被冻得发僵,还是置身温暖的火旁;睡眼朦胧,还是刚从梦中醒来;遭到谩骂还是受到赞扬;濒临死亡,还是忙于其他事务。(因为就连死亡也是人生事务的一部分,对我们的要求无非是“确保眼前的任务圆满完成”。)



3.要透过表面看本质:绝不要让事情的本质特征或价值逃过你的眼睛。



4.一切有形物体的变化都非常迅速:要么升华(假如宇宙的物质确是一个统一体),要么消散。



5.理性这一主宰,对各种环境、目的及其使用的材质了如指掌。



6.避免模仿就是最好的报复。



7.有神灵常驻心间,就能把你一次次为公众效力的快乐和舒畅传递下去。



8.我们理性的主宰,可反省和主导自身。它不仅能按照自己的意愿塑造自身,而且能使经历的事情朝着自己选定的方向发展。



9.在唯一的普遍本性指导下,一切事物皆会各展所长。世上再无与之分庭抗礼的其他本性,无论这种本性是从外部包含她,还是被她从内部所包含,甚至是独立于她而存在。



10.世界要么是一个由聚合与分散无序组成的大杂烩,要么是一个由秩序和天意组成的统一体。如果是前者,为何还想继续生活在如此毫无意义的混沌之中?为何还要在意一切,而不把风度留到最终归于尘土的时候?何必再劳心费神?因为不管我做什么,分散迟早都会落到我的头上。如果事实恰恰相反,那我就要心怀崇敬,立场坚定,全心全意信赖那主宰的力量。



11.如因形势所迫,内心的宁静被打破,要抓紧时间恢复自制力。只要可能,就不要继续受其干扰。经常回归和谐,你就能更多地拥有和谐。



12.假如你同时拥有一位继母和一位生母,你会对前者履行应尽的义务,但却会经常求助于后者。同样地,你也同时拥有宫廷和哲学。不断用哲学充实自己。这样,即使是宫廷生活和置身其中的自己,都会变得可以忍受了。



13.当肉和其他珍馐美味摆在你面前,你会想:这是死去的鱼、家禽或猪;这种法勒纳斯的名酒产自葡萄的汁液;我的紫袍是用羊皮以某种贝类的血染色而成;交配不过是器官的摩擦和精液的喷射。这样的想法触及事物的根源,洞穿并揭示出事物真实的本质。对待整个生活也应该经历同样的过程。当一件事物的表征十分可信时,要揭开它的真相,研究它的细节,撕掉它华丽辞藻的外衣。自命不凡是最大的欺骗。认为自己的作品最值得称赞,没有比这更具有欺骗性了。注意克拉底斯本人是如何评价色诺克拉底的。



14.平庸之辈大都喜欢初级的事物。这类事物,比如木料与石材、无花果树、葡萄藤与橄榄树,往往是靠无机聚合或自然过程而存在。开化程度稍高一些的人会被诸如鸟群和牛群这样具有活动能力的事物所吸引。更高层次的人则欣赏具有理性的灵魂。不过,这种理性并不是普遍理性,而仅仅是指拥有一定技能或其他才能,甚至仅仅指拥有大量奴隶。但是一个人若是重视灵魂的理性、普遍性和社会性,他就不会再看重其他的东西,而只专注于保持自己的心境以及一切行为的理性与社会性,并且和同伴一起为此目标而共同奋斗。



15.一个事物匆匆产生,另一个事物匆匆消亡。即便一个事物正在产生的过程中,它的某些部分便已经不复存在。连续不断的变化更新着宇宙的结构,正如永不停歇的时间始终更新着永恒的面貌。在这奔流不息的河流中,没有稳定的立足点。面对飞逝而过的诸多事物,还有什么值得人们珍惜的呢?这就好比把感情寄托在身边飞过的麻雀身上,在看见它的同时便不见了它的踪影。人的生命无非是从空气中吸入,从血液中呼出。正如我们每时每刻都在吸入空气,只是为了再把它呼出去;或者正如你往日出生时获得了呼吸的能力,也只是为了有朝一日将其归还原主。这二者根本没有实质区别。



16.蒸发不值得珍视,我们和植物都具有这种功能。呼吸也是如此,我们和森林里、田野间的动物都会。感观认知能力、脉搏的颤动、群居的本能、汲取营养的过程,这一切其实并不比排泄过程更精彩。那么,我们应该珍惜什么呢?众人的掌声?不是,当然也不是平庸之辈的交口称赞。除去虚妄的名声,还有什么值得珍惜的呢?我个人的看法是这样的:弄清我们自然构造的作用,无论它们在运动还是不在运动都应如此。毕竟,这才是一切训练和技能的目的。每一项技能都是为了使产品能更好地服务生产它的目的。农夫照料葡萄藤,马夫驯马,狗场管理员训练猎犬,都是出于这一目的。家庭教师和学校老师的工作也是出于同样的目的。这就是我们在寻找的值得珍视的东西。一旦真正认同它,你就不会再被其他目标所诱惑。放弃你怀有的其他雄心壮志吧。否则,你永远也不会成为自己的主人,永远也不会独立于他人,永远也抵御不了激情的驱使。你将肯定会以艳羡、妒忌、猜疑的目光看待可能夺走那些东西的人,并对拥有你所觊觎的那些珍宝的人图谋不轨。如果认为这些东西必不可少,这种念头肯定会引起内心的混乱,往往会使你抱怨神灵。然而,如果尊重自己的理智,则能让你心平气和,与所有其他人心平气和,与神灵和谐相处。也就是说,欣然默认神灵的任何赐予和命令。



17.各种元素在我们上下周围旋转着。而美德却不这样运动,她更为神圣,她以常人无法理解的方式安详地前进着。



18.人们的行为方式是多么奇怪呀!他们会毫不吝惜地赞美生活在他们之中的同代人,而自己却贪婪地渴望得到后世的赞誉,哪怕那些人与他们过去从未谋面,将来也不会谋面。这种人甚至还要抱怨没有得到自己祖先的赞扬!



19.不要因为一件事情对你来说很难,就认为它非人力所能办到。反之,假如一件事人既能做又适合做,就应当认为它一定是你力所能及的事。



20.当我们在竞技场上被对手的指甲划伤或是磕破头时,我们不会抗议或生气,也绝不会事后怀疑人家心怀歹意。但是,我们确实会对他加以小心,不是对他怀有敌意或者猜忌他,而是心平气和地与他保持距离。那么,在生活中的其他场合也应如此。让我们同意原谅竞争伙伴的种种不是吧。就像我说过,我们总可以做一些简单的回避,不带丝毫猜疑或敌意。



21.只要有人能指出并证明我的想法或做法不对,我会很乐于改正。我追求的是真理,而真理绝不会伤害任何人。唯有固执地自欺欺人和愚昧无知才会害人。



22.我只做我必须做到的事情。我不会为其他任何事情分神,因为那些不是无生命、无理性的事,就是被误导而不知道出路的人。



23.对非理性生物和一般实物,要慷慨善良、宽容大度,因为你有理性而它们没有。从另一方面说,人是有理性的,因此要以伙伴之心待之。凡事皆可向神灵求助;只是不要过多顾忌祈祷时间的长短,三小时足矣。



24.马其顿的亚历山大之死和他的马倌之死没有丝毫分别。他们要么一同被宇宙同一生成原则所接纳,要么就一同被分解成原子微粒。



25.想一想,我们每个人体内同时发生着多少精神和肉体上的事情。这样你就不会对这样的事实感到惊讶:比这数目大得多的事物(实际上是我们称之为宇宙的那个巨大统一体里的一切事物),都可以同时存在。



26.假如有人要你拼读出安东尼纳斯这个名字,你会大声拼出每一个字母,让听众生气也让你自己跟着生气吗?相反,为何不心平气和地依次拼出这几个字母呢?那么请记住,在生活中,每一项职责同样也由多项独立成分所组成。要仔细留意每个成分,不要大惊小怪,也不要以怒对怒,要确保分配给你的任务能按部就班地完成。



27.不允许人们追求属于自己的正当权益,这是多么野蛮的行为!然而,如果别人犯错时你对他怒发冲冠,你的行为在某种意义上讲就属于这一性质。说到底,他们只是在追求自己显而易见的权益。你说他们错了吗?如果是这样,那就告诉他们,解释给他们听,而不要怒火中烧。



28.死亡是对感官知觉的一种解脱,是对食欲冲动的一种解脱,是对思维旅程的一种解脱,是对满足肉欲的一种解脱。



29.羞愧啊,身体还在坚持,灵魂却在生命之路上徘徊不前。



30.当心不要对君王过分施加影响,也不要受君王影响太深,因为这样的事情很可能发生。要保持简朴、善良、纯洁、庄重、谦逊的本色,要与正义和虔诚为伴,要为人和蔼、柔情满怀、坚定地忠于职守。要始终尽自己最大的努力去达到哲学对你的要求。要崇敬神灵,要救助同胞。人生短暂,尘世的存在只不过是为了结出一枚果实:内心圣洁,外行无私。各方面都要做安东尼纳斯的信徒,记住他始终坚持用理性约束行为,他在任何场合都能沉着冷静,保持他个人的圣洁;他面容安详,态度亲切;他鄙视声名狼藉,热衷于掌握事实;他遇事悉心研究,直到透彻理解方才罢休;他容忍不公正的指责,从不反唇相讥;他从不草率行事,不与散播谣言者为友;他对各种人、各种举止的判断精确,但从不吹毛求疵;他完全脱离了神经紧张、疑神疑鬼、过分敏感等情况;他对住宿、床铺、衣着、膳食和仆人要求不高,容易满足;他兢兢业业,颇具耐心;由于饮食节俭,他可以从早到晚忙于工作,甚至不到习惯的时间不去如厕;他对待友情坚定不移、始终如一,能容忍对自己意见最直言不讳的反对,能够欢迎任何人提出修改意见;他对神灵的崇敬,不掺杂丝毫迷信的色彩。铭记所有这一切,当你的最后时刻来临时,你的良心会像他一样清白。



31.现在,你要恢复清醒的知觉,找回真实的自己。从沉睡中醒来,认清困扰你的不过是梦魇。用你看待梦魇的方法,来看待自己清醒的眼睛所看到的一切。



32.我由肉体和灵魂构成。对肉体而言,一切都无关紧要,因为它无法分清彼此。对灵魂而言,唯一要紧的是自己的行为,它们都要置于自己的掌控之中。而且,即便在这些行为中,它也只关心现在发生的。一旦它们过去了,或者还停留在未来之中,它们便立刻变得无足轻重了。



33.手脚疼痛算不上反常,只要它们还能发挥作用。同样,疼痛并不违背人的本性,只要他还能从事自己的工作。既然符合本性,也就不会造成伤害。



34.强盗、变态者、弑亲者、暴君对自己享有的一切是多么异乎寻常的高兴呀!



35.注意,就连最平庸的工匠多少也能满足无技能的雇主的要求,然而却坚守行规毫不让步。建筑师或医生对行规的尊重,竟然更甚于对自己与神灵共有的准则的尊重,这难道不可悲吗?



36.在宇宙中,亚洲和欧洲只不过是两个小角落,浩渺海洋只不过是一滴水,圣山阿陀斯不过是一个小土丘,广袤的时间只不过是永恒中的一个针尖。一切都很渺小,易变,易消亡。一切皆源起一处,直接源于或派生于至高无上的普遍理性。甚至连狮子的血盆大口、致命的毒药、其他有害的东西,乃至刺藤、沼泽,统统都是其他高尚美好事物的副产物。因此,不要认为它们和你所崇敬的东西格格不入,而要记住万物同源。



37.看到眼前的事物即是看到了现在的一切,即是看到了时间伊始就已存在的一切,即是看到了直至世界尽头将要存在的一切。这是因为,一切皆同宗同源。



38.时常想一想把宇宙万物联系在一起的纽带,以及万物之间的相互依存。可以说,万物相互交织,结果相互影响;它们之间井然有序的承继来自于张力作用和所有物质的统一。



39.调整自己以适应命中注定的环境,真心关爱命运所赐予的你周围的同胞。



40.一种工具、仪器或器皿只要能发挥应有的作用就很不错,尽管它们的制造者并不在场。可是,就大自然形成的东西而言,铸造它们的力量依然蕴含其中,并且还会继续蕴含其中。进一步而言,假如你尊崇大自然,并确保遵循大自然的意愿生活、做事,那么一切事物皆能如你所愿。宇宙也是以同样的方式让万物皆如其所愿的。



41.要是你认为你无法掌控的事物对你非好即坏,那么当你错过一件事或者遇到另一件事的时候,你必定会对神灵愤愤不平,并且对那些你认为或怀疑造成你失败和不幸的人充满仇恨。事实上,我们就是由于过分看重这类事情而冤枉了很多人。然而,只要我们把是非观念严格置于我们自己能力范围之内,就没有理由指责神灵或是敌视他人。



42.我们都在为同一个目标而共同奋斗。有人心知肚明地自觉工作,而有人则毫不知情(我想,正如赫拉克利特说过的“他们在睡梦中仍在工作”,为宇宙的进程贡献自己的力量)。有人承担这部分工作,有人承担那部分工作。但没有一丁点工作是由极力阻挠和破坏自然趋势,对现状十分不满的人来完成的,尽管宇宙也需要这种人。那么,你就要考虑自己将与何人为伍。因为无论如何,统管全局的人会让你有用武之地,接纳你为他的助手或同伴。只是要注意,你的角色可不是那种可悲的角色,可不是克律西波斯所说的舞台丑角的差事。 〔1〕



43.太阳想过要承担降雨的工作吗?阿斯克勒庇俄斯想过要承担德墨忒耳的工作吗?还有那些星星?尽管各不相同,还不是齐心协力地朝着同一个目的努力吗?



44.如果众神要一起讨论我和我的命运,那么这种讨论是好的,因为很难设想神灵的讨论会不明智。毕竟,他们有什么伤害我的动机呢?对神灵自身或对他们最为在意的宇宙来说又有何益处呢?即便他们不特别顾及我,至少也会顾及宇宙。因此,我理应欢迎并乐意接受任何可能的结果。当然,万一他们什么都不顾及(这种想法大为不敬),那么让我们停止献祭、祈祷、宣誓,以及其他所有能够使我们感知神灵与我们同在的行为。即便如此,即便他们当真不在乎我们凡人的命运,我仍然能够照顾好自己,照管好自己的利益。每一个生灵的利益也都与它自己的身体和本性相一致。我自己的本性是理智而平民化的本性。我拥有城市,也拥有国家。作为马可,我拥有罗马;而作为人类一员,我拥有宇宙。因此,对这些共同体有益的东西,才是对我唯一有益的东西。



45.发生在个人身上的一切对整体也都是有益的。对我们来说,这一理由本身就已足够充分。不过,如果你仔细想想,你也会发现:一般说来,对个人有益的东西,对其同胞也有益。(尽管,此处“有益”一词具有更为通俗的意义,即还包括道德意义上不好不坏的事物。)



46.马戏团和其他娱乐场所千篇一律地上演着同样的演出,这种演出单调乏味、令人厌倦。其实整个生活也同样如此。不管是在上坡路上还是在下坡路上,经历的事情总是千篇一律。其原因和结果都一样。这种状况还要持续多久?



47.要经常思考已故的各种国籍、各种职业的民众,甚至要追溯到腓力斯逊、福玻斯、奥里更尼安的时代。然后再把思路从最近的转到众多其他人身上。想想我们怎样才能追随众多早已长眠的伟大演说家、众多可敬的智者——赫拉克利特、毕达哥拉斯、苏格拉底——那些早期的英雄,那些后世的船长与国王,以及跟随他们的欧多克斯、喜帕恰斯、阿基米德和其他众人。他们头脑机敏,具有崇高的精神,孜孜不倦,足智多谋,意志坚定。他们还曾模仿迈尼普斯及其学派,开心地讲述关于人生短暂易逝的笑话。经常想想那些早已故去的人们,他们如今的境况为什么更加糟糕,尤其是那些姓名早已被人遗忘的人?此生只有一件事弥足珍贵:那就是真实公正地度过人生,即使对不诚实和不公平的人也要有恻隐之心。



48.当你想吃有兴奋作用的药物来提神时,想一想朋友身上的优点:有人很能干,有人很谦逊,还有人很慷慨,等等等等,不一而足。看看我们身边的人所展现的种种美德,没有比这更有效的治疗忧郁的灵丹妙药了。因此,要经常以他们为榜样。



49.你会抱怨自己体重过轻,还不到300磅吗?那么为何要抱怨寿命过短,没有活得更长呢?既然你对所能得到的物质数量感到满意,也应该对时间数量感到满意。



50.争取说服人们。然而如果为了正义的需要,也可违背他们的意愿。但假如有人用武力阻碍你,就要采取另一种做法了。毫无痛苦地接受现实,然后把阻碍转化为培养其他美德的机会。记住,你的尝试始终要有所保留,不要知其不可为而为之。那应该怎么做呢?只要尝试就可以了。这样你就成功了,你的人生目标也就实现了。



51.有野心的人认为,能从别人的活动中受益。贪图享乐的人认为,能从自己的感受中受益。而有理性的人则认为,能从自己的行动中受益。



52.你不必对眼前的事情形成看法,也不必扰乱你内心的平静。事情本身没有能力强迫你做出任何判断。



53.要习惯仔细倾听别人的谈话,要尽力从说话人的立场来理解他的谈话。



54.对蜂房没有好处的东西,绝不会对蜜蜂有好处。



55.假如船员胆敢中伤舵手,或者病人中伤医生,那他们还会听其他人的话吗?怎见得那个其他人就能保证水手的安全,或者病人的健康呢?



56.那么多和我一同出生的人已经离开了这个世界!



57.对于患黄疸病的人来说,蜂蜜似乎是苦的。对于被疯狗咬伤的人来说,水是可怕的。对年幼的孩童来说,一个小球仿佛就是无价之宝。那么,我为何还要发怒呢?难道可以认为错误思想对人的影响不如黄疸病的胆汁和狂犬病的病毒严重吗?



58.无人能阻止你按照自己的本性生活,无事能违背普遍理性的规律在你身上发生。



59.人们尽力讨好的那些人都是可怜虫!他们追求的目标是那样的可悲,他们采取的方式也是那样的可悲!时间将很快覆盖一切!甚至此刻它就已经覆盖了许多!



注 释

〔1〕  即为了更清晰地衬托高尚而扮演卑贱的角色。